LOGGING 


RALPH  CLEMENT  BRYANT 


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LOGGING 

THE 

PRINCIPLES   AND    GENERAL    METHODS 

OF    OPERATION    IN    THE 

UNITED  STATES 


BY 

RALPH  CLEMENT  BRYANT,  F.E.,  M.A. 

manufacturers'  association  professor  of  lumbering 

YALE    university 


FIRST  EDITION 

SECOND    thousand 


NEW   YORK 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS,    Inc. 

London:  CHAPMAN  &   HALL,   Limited 

1914 


Copyright,  1913, 

BY 

RALPH   CLEMENT  BRYANT 


Stanbope  ipress 

.GILSON    COMPAN1 
BOSTON.  U.S.A. 


TO 

THE    MEMBERS   OF    THE    NATIONAL   LUMBER    MANUFACTURERS'" 

ASSOCL\TION   WITH   A   DEEP   APPRECIATION   OF   THEIR 

INTEREST  IN   FORESTRY   AND   FOREST 

EDUCATION 


PREFACE 


This  volume  has  been  prepared  as  a  text-book  for  use  in 
Forest  Schools.  The  subject  is  broad  in  scope  and  an  attempt 
has  been  made  to  cover  only  the  more  important  features  of 
operation;  hence  the  innumerable  variations  in  equipment  and 
method  which  are  pecuHar  to  different  forest  regions  are  not 
included.  Of  the  many  minor  industries  related  to  logging, 
only  two  of  the  more  important  are  treated,  turpentine  orchard- 
ing and  tanbark  harvesting. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  and  costly  features  of  a  logging 
operation  is  the  movement  of  the  timber  from  the  stump  to 
the  manufacturing  plant  and  the  chief  facihties  and  methods 
for  doing  this  are  discussed  at  length,  especially  logging  rail- 
roads. The  greatest  emphasis  is  laid  on  features  about  which 
there  is  not  much  written  material  available,  while  engineering 
subjects  such  as  road  surveys  and  the  measurement  of  earth- 
work and  rock-work  are  omitted  because  they  are  treated  in 
numerous  other  text-books. 

In  preparing  this  volume  the  author  has  consulted  freely 
many  of  the  lumber  trade  journals,  especially  The  Timberman 
and  the  American  Lumberman;  the  various  pubhcations  of  the 
U.  S.  Forest  Service;  "Earthwork  and  Its  Cost,"  by  Gillette; 
articles  in  numerous  periodicals,  especially  the  Forestry  Quar- 
terly;   and  unpublished  manuscripts. 

Many  of  the  photographs  and  drawings  are  original;  the 
others  have  been  secured  from  various  sources  and  credit 
for  them  has  been  given  whenever  their  origin  was  known. 
The  data  on  timberland  ownership  are  from  a  report  on  the 
Lumber  Industry  by  the  Bureau  of  Corporations  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  and  Labor.  The  log  rules  in  the  Appendix 
were  taken  chiefly  from  the  Woodsman's  Handbook,  by  Graves; 


Vlll  PREFACE 

two  tables  of  cubic  contents  are  from  the  Forestry  Quarterly, 
and  one  from  the  Manual  for  Northern  Woodsmen,  by  Gary. 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  all  who 
have  aided  him  in  any  way  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume, 
particularly  to  Prof.  Samuel  J.  Record,  who  assisted  in  the 
correction  of  the  manuscript. 

R.  C.  BRYANT. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 
April,  1913. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I.     General i 

Chapter  I.    Forest  Resources 3 

Stand  of  timber 3 

Ownership  of  Timberlands 4 

Commercial  Species 5 

Cecapter  II.    Protection  of  Forest  Property 25 

Fires 25 

Brush  Disposal 26 

Spark  Arresters 30 

Fuel  Oil 34 

Electric  Drive 35 

Protective  Associations 35 

Insurance  of  Standing  Timber 36 

Wind  Damage 37 

Chapter  III.    Timber  Bonds 39 

PART  II.     Preparing  Logs  for  Transport 45 

Chapter  IV.    Forest  Labor 47 

Length  of  Employment 47 

Character 48 

Methods  of  Employment  and  Payment 48 

Unions 50 

Organization 51 

Workmen's  Compensation  Acts 51 

Chapter  V.    Logging  Camps 56 

Camp  Location 56 

T3T3es  of  Camps 57 

Boarding  Department 67 

Camp  Hygiene 70 

Medical  Attention 70 

Chapter  VI.     Woodworkers'  Tools  and  Equipment 72 

Axes 72 

Saws 74 

Power  Felling  Machines ' 78 

Power  Log-making  Machines 79 

Wedges 81 

Mauls  and  Sledges 82 


X  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Spring  Boards 83 

Kilhig  or  Sampson 83 

Measuring  Sticks 84 

Peavey 84 

Canthook 85 

Pickaroon 86 

Undercutters 86 

Use  of  Kerosene 86 

Chapter  VII.     Felling  and  Log-making 87 

Season 87 

Deadening 89 

Direction  of  Fall 89 

Organization  of  Crews 90 

Cutting  Areas 91 

Notching 92 

Felling 93 

Stump  Heights 94 

Log-making 95 

Power  Bucking 100 

Waste  in  Log-making loi 

Barking  or  Rossing 104 

Sniping 105 

Chapter  VIII.     Measurement  of  Logs  and  Other  Forest  Prod- 
ucts    107 

Units  of  Measurement 107 

Board  Measure 107 

Log  Rules 108 

Cubic  Measure 114 

Scaling 117 

Log  Grades 125 

PART  III.     Land  Transport 127 

Chapter  IX.     Animal  Draft  Power 129 

Oxen 1 29 

Horses 131 

Mules 131 

Rations 132 

Water  Requirements 138 

Chapter  X.     Skidway  and  Storage  Sites 140 

Log  Storage  in  the  Forest 140 

Chapter  XI.    Hand  Logging  and  Animal  Snaking i4S 

Hand  Logging 145 

Snaking  with  Animals 146 

Snaking  Equipment 150 

Crews  and  Daily  Output 154 


CONTENTS  XI 

PAGE 

Chapter  XII.     Sleds  and  Sled  Hauling iS5 

The  Go-devil i55 

The  Lizard 156 

The  Yarding  Sled i57 

The  Bob 158 

The  Jumbo iS9 

The  Two-sied iS9 

Sled  Roads 161 

Operation ^7° 

Steam  Log  Haulers 172 

Chapter  XIII.     Wheeled  Vehicles 178 

Two-wheeled  Vehicles 178 

Wagons 185 

Traction  Engines  for  Wagon  Hauling 192 

Chapter  XIV.     Power  Skidding 196 

The  Cableway  System 196 

The  Snaking  System 204 

The  Slack-rope  System 208 

Chapter  XV.    Aerial  Tramways 222 

Chapter  XVI.    Timber  Slides  and  Chutes 230 

Character 230 

Grades 236 

Curves 238 

Operation 238 

Chapter  XVII.     Forest  Railroads 242 

Pole  Roads 242 

Stringer  Roads 245 

Steel  Railroads 247 

Advantages  of  Railroad  Transportation 248 

Choice  of  Gauge 249 

Rights-of-way 250 

Location ^5^ 

Chapter  XVIII.     Railroad  Construction 257 

Clearing  the  Right-of-way 257 

Fills  and  Cuts 259 

Movement  of  Earth 262 

Rock  Excavation 269 

Blasting 269 

Explosives 271 

Stump  Blasting 276 

Timber  Work 278 

Track  Supplies 286 

Steel  Laying  and  Removal 290 

Chapter  XIX.    Inclines 297 


Xll  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter  XX.    Motive  Power  and  Rolling  Stock 304 

Locomotives 304 

Logging  Cars 315 

Chapter  XXI.    Loading  and  Unloading  Log  Cars 322 

Loading  Cars 322 

Unloading  Cars 332 

PART  IV.     Water  Transport 341 

Chapter  XXII.     Floating  and  Rafting 343 

Disadvantages 343 

Requirements  for  a  Driveable  Stream 347 

Dams 349 

Sluice  Gates 354 

Log  Carriers 358 

Improvement  of  the  Stream  Bed  and  Banks 359 

Booms 360 

Storage  and  Sorting  Facilities 363 

The  Drive 368 

a.   Log  Marks  and  Brands 3  70 

B.   Species  that  will  Float 372 

c.   Labor 374 

D.   Conduct  of  the  Drive 375 

Small  Streams 375 

Large  Streams 379 

Rafting 381 

On  Streams 381 

On  the  Ocean 390 

Log  Barges 392 

Sunken  Logs 392 

Chapter  XXIII.     Flumes  and  Log  Sluices 394 

Location 395 

Type  of  Box 396 

Trestles 401 

Terminals 404 

Construction 405 

Operation 410 

PART  V.     Summary  of  Logging  Methods  in  Specific   Regions 415 

Chapter  XXIV 417 

A.  Portable  Mill  Operations 417 

B.  Northeast 424 

c.   Lake  States  —  White  Pine 426 

D.   Southern  Yellow  Pine 427 

e.   Cypress 430 

F.  Northwest 43 1 

G.  Mountain  Logging  in  West  Virginia 434 

H.  Alaska 436 


CONTENTS  xm 

PAGE 

PART  VI.     Minor  Industries 439 

Chapter  XXV.    Turpentine  Orcharding 441 

Methods  of  Operation 443 

A.  The  Working  Unit 443 

B.  The  Size  of  Tree  and  the  Number  of  Receptacles 444 

c.   The  Box  System 444 

Cutting  the  Boxes 444 

Cornering 445 

Chipping 445 

Dipping 447 

Scraping 448 

Raking 448 

D.   The  Cup  Systems 449 

Herty's  Cup  and  Gutter 449 

Hanging  the  Cups 449 

Chipping 452 

Dipping 452 

Advantages  of  the  System 453 

The  McKoy  Cup 453 

The  Gilmer-McCall  Cup 454 

Distillation  of  Crude  Turpentine 455 

Markets 457 

Chapter  XXVI.    Harvesting  Tan  Bark 459 

Hemlock 459 

Chestnut  Oak 463 

Tan  Bark  Oak 464 

Appendix 467 

Bibliography 469 

A  Partial  List  of  Trade  Journals  Published  in  the  Interest  of  the 

Lumber  Industry 478 

Terms  Used  in  Logging 479 

Log  Rules  and  Tables  of  Cubic  Contents 511 

Log  Grading  Rules 523 

Wage  Lists 529 

Stumpage  Values 537 

Partial  Estimate,  by  States,  of  the  Standing  Timber  in  the  United 

States 543 

Index 547 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  Map  of  the  United  States  showing  natural  forest  regions Frontispiece 

2.  The  Sequoia  spark  arrester 31 

3.  The  South  Bend  spark  arrester 31 

4.  Locomotive  spark  cap 32 

5.  The  boomerang  spark  arrester 33 

6.  The  Radley-Hunter  spark  arrester 34 

7.  Typical  logging  camp  of  the  Northeast 59 

8.  A  two-storied  logging  camp.     Northern  New  York 60 

9.  A  portable-house  logging  camp 62 

10.  An  end  and  side  view  of  the  frame  of  a  car  barn 65 

11.  A  floating  camp  on  a  cypress  operation 67 

12.  Characteristic  types  of  ax  heads 73 

13.  Common  types  of  cross-cut  saw  handles 75 

14.  Saw  teeth  patterns 76 

15.  The  forms  of  bevel  used  on  cross-cut  saws 78 

16.  The  endless  chain  saw  used  in  bucking  up  logs  in  the  Pacific  Coast  forests  80 

17.  Some  patterns  of  wedges  used  by  loggers 81 

18.  A  spring  board  used  by  fallers  in  the  Northwest 83 

19.  A  kilhig  or  Sampson  used  in  directing  the  fall  of  a  tree 84 

20.  A  socket  peavey 85 

21.  A  cant  hook 85 

22.  A  type  of  undercutter  used  in  the  Pacific  Coast  forests 86 

23.  An  undercut  on  a  large  Douglas  fir  tree 92 

24.  A  forked  tree  cut  in  a  wasteful  manner 102 

25.  Waste  in  a  top  resulting  from  an  improper  selection  of  log  lengths 103 

26.  Skidways  along  a  two-sled  road 142 

27.  Skidding  trails  leading  down  to  a  skidway  along  the  logging  railroad. 

West  Virginia 147 

28.  Oxen  skidding  a  yellow  pine  log  containing  1200  feet.     Arkansas 147 

29.  A  skipper  road  on  a  West  Virginia  operation 148 

30.  Various  forms  of  equipment  used  in  snaking  logs 151 

31.  A  turn  of  logs  at  the  dump  along  a  skipper  road 152 

32.  A  type  of  grab  skipper  and  a  grab  maul  used  on  a  West  Virginia  logging 

operation 153 

33.  A  go-devil  loaded  with  hardwood  logs.     Michigan 155 

34.  A  yarding-sled  used  in  the  Northeast 157 

35.  Methods  of  fastening  logs  to  the  bunk  of  a  yarding  sled 158 

36.  A  loaded  two  sled,  showing  the  binding  chains  and  a  potter  (on  the  left). 

New  Hampshire 160 


XVI  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

37.  Yarding  sled  trails  leading  down  to  a  skidway  on  a  two-sled  road.     Maine  162 

38.  A  yarding  sled  road  built  up  on  a  curve  to  prevent  the  sleds  from  leaving 

the  road.     Maine 163 

39.  A  two-sled  road,  showing  the  method  of  building  up  the  grade  on  side 

slopes 165 

40.  A  snow  shed  on  a  two-sled  road.     Maine 167 

41.  A  sprinkler  being  filled  with  water  from  a  brook.     Maine 169 

42.  A  Lombard  steam  log  hauler 173 

43.  Tj^pe  of  sled  used  with  a  steam  log  hauler 175 

44.  The  method  of  loading  logs  on  a  bummer 178 

45.  The  Perry  log  cart  in  position  to  load 180 

46.  The  Perry  log  cart  loaded 181 

47.  A  slip  tongue  cart  in  a  southern  yellow  pine  forest 183 

48.  A  four-wheeled  log  wagon  at  the  skidway.     Missouri 186 

49.  An  eight-wheeled  log  wagon  with  a  load  of  yellow  pine  logs.     Louisiana.  189 

50.  Loading  a  log  wagon  by  means  of  the  cross-haul.     Missouri 191 

51.  A  Holt  three-wheeled  traction  engine  hauHng  sugar  pine  logs.     Cali- 

fornia    194 

52.  A  steel  spar  cableway  skidder,  showing  loading  boom  in  front 197 

53.  A  tail  tree,  showing  the  method  of  attaching  the  blocks  to  the  tree;  also 

the  arrangement  of  the  guys 198 

54.  A  cableway  skidder,  showing  the  arrangement  of  the  lines  for  skidding 

and  loading 198 

55.  Cutting  the  top  from  a  head  spar  tree  on  which  is  placed  the  main  cable 

rigging  for  a  cableway  skidder 199 

56.  Method  of  shifting  the  main  cable  from  one  run  to  another 201 

57.  A  portable  snaking  machine  operating  in  a  Texas  longleaf  pine  forest.  .  .  205 

58.  The  arrangement  of  the  roads  down  which  logs  are  pulled  to  the  puUboat  209 

59.  The  sheave  block  attached  to  the  tail  tree 210 

60.  A  single-wire  tramway  used  in  the  Pacific  Coast  forests 224 

61.  A  single-cable  aerial  tramway  in  use  in  the  Pacific  Coast  forests 225 

62.  A  single-cable  tramway 227 

63.  View  down  a  timber  slide.     Idaho 231 

64.  The  terminus  of  a  log  slide.     Idaho 232 

65.  A  whippoorwill  switch  for  throwing  logs  from  a  slide 2^s 

66.  A  sawed  timber  slide,  sometimes  used  where  the  wear  is  e.xcessive 2^^ 

67.  A  fore-and-aft  or  pole  road  used  with  a  road  engine.     Pacific  Coast. . .  .  234 

68.  A  timber  chute.     New  Hampshire 235 

69.  A  turn  of  logs  ready  to  move  along  a  trailing  slide 238 

70.  An  "L"  hook  used  for  attaching  the  tow  line  to  the  turn  of  logs 239 

71.  Goose-necks  used  for  checking  the  speed  of  logs  on  heavy  grades 240 

72.  View  down  a  pole  tram-road  in  Idaho 243 

73.  The  type  of  car  used  on  a  pole  tram-road  in  Idaho 244 

74.  A  stringer  road  in  the  Appalachian  mountains 246 

75.  Two  methods  of  constructing  a  grade  for  a  logging  railroad 260 

76.  Method  of  placing  caps  in  the  primer 274 

77.  Forms  of  trestles  and  culverts  commonly  used  on  logging  railroads 279 

78.  A  round  timber  framed  trestle  on  a  logging  railroad 282 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

FIG.  PAGE 

79.  The  foundation  for  a  dunnage  road 283 

80.  A  spur  logging  railroad  corduroyed  with  poles.     Arkansas 285 

81.  A  standard  rail  head 287 

82.  Forms  of  rail  fastenings 288 

83.  Two  forms  of  turnouts  used  on  logging  railroads 289 

84.  Diagram  showing  the  customary  elevation  of  the  outer  rail,  in  inches, 

for  various  degrees  of  curvature 294 

85.  A  hydrauUc  snubbing  machine 300 

86.  A  Climax  geared  locomotive 306 

87.  A  Heisler  geared  locomotive 308 

88.  A  Shay  geared  locomotive 309 

89.  A  skeleton  log  car 317 

90.  A  log  truck  of  the  type  used  in  the  Pacific  Coast  forests 319 

91.  Loading  log  cars  with  the  cross-haul.     Missouri 322 

92.  A  Model  C  American  log  loader 324 

93.  The  Rapid  log  loader ^2$ 

94.  The  Decker  log  loader 326 

95.  The  McGiffert  log  loader 327 

96.  A  rollway  at  the  mill  pond 332 

97.  Floor  plan  of  a  tilting  log  dump 335 

98.  Details  of  a  tilting  log  dump 337 

99.  The  sluice-way  and  apron  of  a  rafter  dam  on  the  Priest  river.     Idaho  353 
100.  The  upstream  face  of  a  small  rafter  dam,  showing  a  common  form  of 

hft  gate 354 

loi.  The  bear-trap  sluice  gate 355 

102.  A  half-moon  gate  used  in  a  low  sluice  way.     Wisconsin 356 

103.  Upstream  view  of  a  rafter  dam,  showing  a  needle  gate.     Appalachians  357 

104.  An  abutment  for  the  protection  of  stream  banks 359 

105.  An  artificial  channel  used  to  confine  flood  water  in  a  narrow  bed 360 

106.  The  methods  of  fastening  boom  sticks  with  chains 361 

107.  A  fin  boom 362 

108.  Piers  built  in  a  river  to  hold  storage  booms  in  place.     Minnesota 363 

109.  Log  storing  and  sorting  works  on  the  St.  John  river.     New  Brunswick  364 
no.  A  sorting  gap  on  the  St.  John  river  near  Fredericton,  New  Brunswick.  366 

111.  A  patent  sorting  device  used  in  the  Appalachian  region 367 

112.  Some  Mississippi  river  log  marks 371 

113.  A  log-driving  crew  at  the  landing  waiting  for  a  head  of  water.     New 

Hampshire 376 

114.  A  "headworks"  used  to  tow  log  rafts  across  small  lakes.      Maine 378 

115.  A  Mississippi  river  log  raft,  showing  the  method  of  control  by  end- 

wheel  steamers 382 

116.  Method  of  fastening  poles  to  the  logs  by  means  of  iron  dogs 383 

117.  Loading  the  " bottom  "  of  a  raft  with  logs  by  means  of  a  parbuckle.     A 

bracket  boom  is  shown  on  the  left 384 

118.  Method  of  attaching  rafting  poles  to  the  logs  by  means  of  wooden  pins.  384 

119.  Method  of  fastening  rafting  poles  to  logs  by  means  of  rope  and  rafting 

pins.     A  method  formerly  used  on  the  Mississippi  river 385 

120.  Details  of  a  Mississippi  river  log  raft 386 


Xviii  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

121.  A  cypress  raft  in  a  Louisiana  bayou.     The  floating  vegetation  on  the 

extreme  right  is  the  water  hyacinth 387 

122.  A  raft  bundle  at  the  mill  pond.     North  Carolina 388 

123.  General  structural  features  of  flume  and  sluice  boxes 397 

124.  A  V-flume  for  transporting  mining  stulls.     Montana 399 

125.  Details  of  a  trestle  bent  for  a  lumber  flume;   also  the  method  of  cross- 

bracing  the  bents 402 

126.  A  five-leg  flume  trestle  for  heights  greater  than  75  feet 403 

127.  The  terminal  of  a  log  flume,  near  the  Deerlodge  National  Forest,  Mon- 

tana.    This  type  is  known  as  an  "elephant " 404 

128.  Two  types  of  flume  terminals 406 

129.  A  turpentine  box  for  the  collection  of  crude  turpentine 445 

130.  A  workman  cutting  incisions  on  the  face  of  the  tree,  into  which  gutters 

are  to  be  inserted.     Herty  system 450 

131.  A  tree  equipped  with  a  Herty  cup  and  gutters.     The  first  streaks  will 

be  cut  at  the  upper  edge  of  each  face 451 

132.  A  Herty  cup  on  a  "yearling"  crop.     The  cup  was  raised  at  the  begin- 

ning of  the  second  season 45  2 

133.  The  McKoy  cup  used  for  the  collection  of  crude  turpentine 453 


PART  I 
GENERAL 


LOGGING 


CHAPTER   I 

FOREST   RESOURCES 

It  is  estimated  that  the  original  forested  area  of  the  United 
States  covered  850,000,000  acres  and  contained  approximately 
5,200,000,000,000  feet  of  timber.^  It  comprised  five  broad 
types,  namely,  the  Northern,  the  Southern,  the  Central,  the 
Rocky  Mountain  and  the  Pacific  Slope,  the  approximate  bound- 
aries of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  i . 

The  distribution  of  the  original  and  present  forest  area  is 
shown  in  the  following  table: 


Original  forest. 

Present  forest. 

Region. 

Area. 

Stand. 

Area. 

Per  cent  of 
Stand.            original 

i 

Per  cent  of 
original 
stand. 

Million 
acres. 

Billion 
feet.B.M. 

Million 
acres. 

Billion 
feet,  B.  M. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Northern 

150 
220 
280 
no 
90 

1000 
1000 
1400 
400 
1400 

90 

ISO 
130 
100 
80 

300 
500 
300 
300 
HOC 

60 
68 
46 
91 
89 

30 
50 

Central 

Rocky  Mountain 

Pacific  Slope 

75 
79 

850 

5200 

550 

2500 

65 

48 

The  estimated  stand  of  timber  in  the  United  States  in  1909 
was  as  follows  :- 


1  Kellogg,  R.  S.:  The  Timber  Supply  of  the  United  States.     Cir.  166,  U.S. 
Forest  Service,  1909. 

2  Ibid. 

3 


4  LOGGING 

Species  Billion  Feet,  B.  M. 

Douglas  fir 5^5 

Southern  yellow  pine 350  ^ 

Western  yellow  pine 275 

Redwood 100 

Western  hemlock 100 

Western  cedar 100 

Lodgepole  pine 9° 

White  and  Norway  pine 75 

Eastern  hemlock 75 

Western  spruce 60 

Eastern  spruce 50 

Western  fir 5° 

Sugar  pine 30 

Cypress 20* 

Other  conifers 100 

Hardwoods 5°° 

Total  2500 

Ownership.-  —  The  standing  merchantable  timber  in  the 
United   States   is   owned   approximately   as   follows: 

Private 75  .0  per  cent 

National  Forest 21 . 5  per  cent 

Other  Federal  and  State 3  ■  5  per  cent 

1 00.0  per  cent 

The  private  stumpage  is  held,  chiefly,  in  three  regions: 

Pacific  Northwest 46 .  o  per  cent 

Southern  pine  region 29 .  i  per  cent 

Lake  States 4  •  5  per  cent 

Other  regions 20 . 4  per  cent 

100. o  per  cent 

The  ownership  of  the  timber  lands  in  the  Pacific  Northwest 
is  concentrated  in  a  comparatively  few  hands.     Three  interests 

1  The  Bureau  of  Corporations  of  the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor, 
in  its  report  on  The  Lumber  Industry,  Part  I,  Standing  Timber,  estimated  the  total 
stand  of  timber  to  be  2800  billion  feet.  Among  the  marked  differences  were  the 
following : 

Longleaf  pine 384.4  billion  feet 

Shortleaf  and  loblolly  pine 15  2.1  billion  feet 

Cypress 40.4  billion  feet 

2  See  the  Lumber  Industry,  Part  I,  Standing  Timber.  Bureau  of  Corporatior-.s, 
Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.     Washington,  1913.     Pp.  11-24. 


FOREST   RESOURCES  5 

control  24I  per  cent  of  all  the  private  stumpage,  namely,  the 
Southern  Pacific  Company,  105,600,000,000  board  feet;  the 
Weyerhaeuser  Timber  Company,  95,700,000,000  board  feet;  and 
the  Northern  Pacific  Railway  Company,  36,200,000,000  board 
feet.  Twenty  holders  control  43  per  cent  of  the  private  stump- 
age,  and  thirty-eight  interests  control  50  per  cent. 

In  the  South  the  holdings  are  not  so  large  because  the  stand 
of  timber  per  acre  is  much  lower  than  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 
Extensive  logging  operations  have  made  conditions  unfavorable 
for  amassing  large  contiguous  holdings,  and  there  have  not  been 
the  large  land  grants  which  were  common  in  the  West;  conse- 
quently the  timber  is  held  by  a  greater  number  of  companies. 
Twenty-nine  interests  own  16  per  cent  of  the  private  stumpage; 
67  holders,  24  per  cent;  159  owners,  33  per  cent;  and  558  holders, 
approximately  50  per  cent.  The  sixty-seven  largest  interests 
control  39  per  cent  of  the  longleaf,  19  per  cent  of  the  loblolly 
and  shortleaf,  29  per  cent  of  the  cypress  and  11  per  cent  of  the 
hardwood  stumpage.  It  has  been  estimated^  that  only  1,200,000 
acres  of  yellow  pine,  containing  18,000,000,000  feet  are  not  held 
by  manufacturers. 

In  the  Lake  States,  six  interests  control  54  per  cent  of  the 
white  and  Norway  pine  stumpage,  16  per  cent  of  other  conifers 
and  2  per  cent  of  the  hardwoods,  and  thirty-three  interests  con- 
trol 77  per  cent  of  the  white  and  Norway  pine. 

The  detailed  holdings  in  these  three  sections  are  shown  on 
page  543  in  the  Appendix. 

The  timber  in  other  regions  is  divided  among  many  owners, 
controlling  a  limited  acreage.  Few  holdings  in  the  Northeast 
aggregate  more  than  100,000  acres. 

COMMERCIAL    SPECIES 

Douglas  Fir.  —  This  species  {Pseudotsuga  taxifolia)  is  the  most 
important  lumber  producer  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  will  un- 
doubtedly surpass  yellow  pine  in  annual  production  during  the 

1  Estimate  by  James  D.  Lacey  and  Co.,  Chicago,  Illinois.  See  The  American 
Lumber  Industry,  Official  Report  Tenth  Annual  Convention  National  Lumber 
Manufacturers'  Association,  May  7  and  8,  191 2,  p.  94. 


6  LOGGING 

next  decade.  The  largest  manufacturing  plants  are  located  on 
Puget  Sound,  the  Columbia  River,  and  harbors  along  the  Pacific 
Coast.  A  large  part  of  the  log  supply  for  these  mills  is  floated 
to  market.  Great  waste,  both  in  the  forest  and  at  the  mill, 
characterizes  its  manufacture.  The  home  market  for  low  grades 
is  limited  and  the  cost  of  rail  transportation  across  the  moun- 
tains to  the  central  and  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  is 
prohibitive,  except  for  the  best  grades;  consequently  much  good 
material  is  left  in  the  forest  to  rot,  or  is  consumed  in  the  refuse 
burner  at  the  mill.  The  increased  water  transport  faciHties 
and  the  cheaper  freight  rate  that  will  be  provided  by  the  Panama 
canal  should  be  a  great  stimulus  to  the  closer  utilization  of  this 
species.  The  better  grades  of  lumber  are  exported  extensively 
to  Asia,  the  South  Sea  Islands  and  the  western  coast  of  South 
America.     Only  small  quantities  find  their  way  to  Europe. 

Douglas  fir  grows  in  dense,  almost  pure  stands  in  the  Pacific 
Coast  region  yielding  an  average  of  35,00c  to  60,000  feet  of 
merchantable  timber  per  acre,  with  150,000  to  250,000  feet  on 
the  better  stands.  Single  trees  have  scaled  60,000  feet.  The 
maximum  yield  per  acre  of  Douglas  fir  so  far  reported  was 
585,000  feet.  This  timber  grew  on  the  north  shore  of  Puget 
Sound. 

The  cut  of  Douglas  fir  in  1910  was  5,203,644,000  board  feet. 

Stumpage  has  increased  in  price  rapidly  during  recent  years, 
and  large  areas  are  now  held  by  non-operating  concerns  as  in- 
vestments. Timber  could  be  purchased  in  1892  for  10  to  30 
cents  per  thousand  feet  but  is  now  held  at  from  $2.00  to  $3.50 
per  thousand  feet,  the  price  depending  on  the  location  and  the 
quality  of  the  timber.  During  the  last  two  years  a  number  of 
sales  have  been  made  on  the  National  Forests  at  approximately 
$3.00  per  thousand  feet. 

Southern  Yellow  Pine. — ^ There  are  three  species  of  yellow  pine 
of  primary  commercial  importance  found  in  the  southern  region; 
namely,  longleaf  (Finns  palnstris),  shortleaf  (P.  echinata)  and 
loblolly  {P.  tceda).  The  lumber  manufactured  from  them  is 
often  marketed  under  the  trade  name  of  yellow  pine,  although 
it  is  customary  for  manufacturers  in  a  longleaf  region  to  sell  all 


FOREST   RESOURCES  7 

species  under  the  name  of  "longleaf,"  while  in  parts  of  Arkansas 
and  Louisiana  loblolly  is  marketed  as  "soft  shortleaf."  In  the 
Coastal  Plain  region  of  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas  where  loblolly 
predominates  the  product  is  sold  under  the  trade  name  of  "North 
Carohna  Pine."  In  some  of  the  large  eastern  markets  like  New 
York  and  Philadelphia  yellow  pine  is  often  sold  under  the  trade 
name  of  "longleaf,"  or  of  "shortleaf,"  the  distinction  being  based 
on  the  physical  character  of  the  wood.  The  term  longleaf  is 
applied  to  timbers  and  lumber  having  narrow  annual  rings, 
while  coarse-grained  lumber  is  called  shortleaf. 

Longleaf  is  considered  preferable  for  timbers,  flooring  and 
places  where  the  maximum  strength  or  wearing  quality  is  de- 
sired, while  loblolly  and  shortleaf  are  regarded  with  favor  for 
finish  and  general  construction  purposes. 

The  annual  production  of  yellow  pine  has  probably  reached 
its  maximum,  but  a  marked  decrease  is  not  likely  for  a  few  years 
because  many  operators  will  increase  their  output  when  other 
mills  shut  down  because  of  the  exhaustion  of  their  stumpage. 
Operators  estimate  that  most  of  the  largest  mills  will  be  cut  out 
during  the  next  fifteen  years. 

The  yellow  pine  forests  are  now  the  source  of  most  of  the 
lumber  utihzed  in  the  South,  and  in  the  prairie  regions  of  the 
Middle  West.  Their  products  are  also  shipped  in  large  quantities 
to  New  England,  Canada,  nearly  all  countries  of  Europe  and  to 
many  parts  of  eastern  South  America.  They  are  also  the  chief 
source  of  the  railroad  lumber  supplies  of  the  East  and  South. 

The  longleaf  forests  have  for  many  years  been  the  chief  source 
of  the  world's  supply  of  naval  stores. 

The  manufacture  of  by-products,  such  as  pulp,  and  products 
of  distillation  from  mill-waste  and  forest-refuse  is  growing  in 
importance  and  promises  soon  to  become  an  important  industry. 

Longleaf  grows  largely  in  pure  stands  which  run  from  5000 
to  25,000  feet  per  acre;  shortleaf  which  seldom  exceeds  6000 
feet  per  acre  occurs  with  hardwoods  on  richer  soils;  virgin 
loblolly  in  southern  Arkansas  is  associated  with  shortleaf  in 
nearly  pure  pine  forests  ranging  from  5000  to  30,000  feet  per 
acre,  the  former  comprising  from  60  to  80  per  cent  of  the  total 


8  LOGGING 

Stand.  The  average  stand  over  large  areas  does  not  exceed 
10,000  feet.  In  the  Coastal  Plain  region  the  second-growth 
forests  of  loblolly  average  from  5000  to  6000  feet  per  acre  with 
a  maximum  of  15,000  feet.  The  choicest  longleaf  stumpage  is 
found  in  Calcasieu  Parish  in  southwestern  Louisiana,  where 
it  commands  a  higher  price  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
South. 

The  lumber  cut  in  191 1  was  12,896,706,000  board  feet. 

Logging  has  become  more  intensive  during  recent  years  and 
loggers  get  from  three  to  five  times  more  timber  per  acre  than 
formerly.  In  Louisiana  the  values  show  an  increase  from  $3.00 
per  acre  in  1897  to  $75  in  1911,^  and  in  Virginia  "timber  rights"^ 
show  an  increase  from  40  cents  per  thousand  feet  in  1897  to 
$2.96  in  1908.  A  table  of  southern  yellow  pine  stumpage  values 
is  given  on  page  541  in  the  Appendix. 

Western  Yellow  Pine.  —  Western  yellow  pine  {Pinus  pon- 
der osa)  is  one  of  the  more  important  merchantable  species  in  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region.  Its  market  is  largely  confined  to  the 
territory  in  which  it  grows  and  its  chief  uses  are  for  general 
construction  purposes  and  mining  timbers. 

The  stand  in  the  Sierras,  where  it  grows  in  mixture  with  sugar 
pine,  Douglas  fir,  incense  cedar  and  firs,  ranges  from  2000  to 
22,000  feet  per  acre  with  an  average  of  about  8000  feet.  In 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico  it  ranges  from  3500  to  15,000  feet  per 
acre.  Maximum  stands  of  40,000  feet  per  acre  have  been 
reported. 

The  cut  of  western  yellow  pine  for  1910  was  1,562,106,000 
board  feet. 

Stumpage  values  per  thousand  feet  for  western  yellow  pine 
have  been  approximately  as  follows: 

1906,  Sierras,  California $2 

1908,  Plumas  National  Forest 2 

1910,  Crook  National  Forest 3 

1910,  Crater  National  Forest 3 

1912,  Manitou  Park  Reserve,  Colorado.  .  .  4 

1  The  American  Lumber  Industry.  Official  Report  Tenth  Annual  Convention 
National  Manufacturers'  Association,  191 2.     P.  89. 

2  American  Lumberman,  Chicago,  Illinois,  Feb.  18,  1911,  p.  40. 


.00  to  2 

so 

.  50  to  4 

00 

.00 

•15 

.00  to  5 

00 

FOREST   RESOURCES  9 

Wliite  Pine.  —  White  pine  {Finns  strohus)  is  of  less  importance 
in  our  lumber  markets  than  formerly.  Its  manufacture  is  now 
chiefly  confined  to  the  state  of  ^Minnesota  which  contains  the 
greater  part  of  the  remaining  stumpage,  estimated  at  75,000,000,- 
000  feet. 

Intensive  utilization  is  practiced,  because  of  the  high  value 
of  the  lumber  and  the  extensive  demand  for  box  board  material 
for  which  this  species  is  especially  adapted. 

The  virgin  stands  of  white  pine  in  Michigan  averaged  from 
10,000  to  75,000  feet  per  acre,  although  a  yield  of  25,000  feet 
v/as  considered  good. 

The  cut  of  eastern  white  pine  is  decreasing  each  year,  the 
records  for  1910  showing  a  total  of  3,119,741,000  board  feet. 

Stumpage  shows  a  very  marked  increase  in  value  during  the 
last  thirty-nine  years.  Michigan  white  pine  lands  were  sold  in 
1866  for  $1.00  and  $1.25  per  acre,  while  in  1905  the  stumpage 
ranged  from  $10  to  $20  per  thousand  feet.  A  list  of  values  for 
the  years  1866  to  191 1  in  the  Lake  States  is  given  on  pages 
539  and  540  of  the  Appendix. 

Western  white  pine  (Pinus  monticola)  grows  in  Idaho,  Mon- 
tana and  Washington  and  is  now  being  substituted  in  the  mar- 
kets for  eastern  white  pine.  This  timber  is  sold  largely  outside 
of  the  home  territory,  because  Douglas  fir  and  other  woods  can 
undersell  it  in  the  local  markets. 

The  tree  rarely  occurs  in  pure  stands,  but  is  associated  with 
western  larch  {Larix  occidentalis) ,  western  red  cedar  {Thuja 
plicata)  and  other  firs  {Abies  sp.).  It  reaches  its  best  develop- 
ment in  Idaho,  where  in  mixed  stands  of  the  above  species 
ranging  from  25,000  to  70,000  feet  per  acre  it  comprises  from  60 
to  70  per  cent  of  the  total.  An  occasional  acre  contains  130,000 
feet.  A  single  tree  has  yielded  29,800  board  feet  of  lumber. 
The  amount  of  standing  timber  has  not  been  reported. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1910  was  248,435,000  board  feet. 

Stumpage  values  now  range  from  $3.00  to  $4.50  per  thousand 
feet. 

Hemlock.  —  There  are  two  species  now  on  the  market  known 
as  the  eastern  hemlock  {Tsuga  canadensis)  and  the  western 
hemlock  {T.  heterophylla). 


lO  LOGGING 

It  is  only  within  the  last  twenty  years  that  eastern  hemlock 
has  been  regarded  as  of  much  value  except  for  its  bark,  and  even 
to-day  the  latter  commands  as  high  a  price  as  the  timber,  which 
3    knotty  and  inchned  to  be  brashy  and  shaky. 

Hemlock  grows  either  in  pure  forests  or  associated  with  other 

•ifers.  In  Pennsylvania  the  best  pure  stands  run  as  high  as 
oo  feet  per  acre.  The  average  in  northern  Michigan  is 
^joo  feet.  In  West  Virginia,  where  hemlock  occurs  in  a  mixed 
forest,  the  average  is  from  2000  to  3000  feet  per  acre.  The 
heaviest  stands  in  the  Appalachians  range  between  25,000  and 
40,000  feet  per  acre. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1910  was  approximately  2,669,424,000  feet. 

As  late  as  1897,  hemlock  was  regarded  of  httle  value  in  Michi- 
gan and  Wisconsin,  and  could  often  be  secured  for  taxes.  In 
1900  the  stumpage  price  was  about  50  cents  per  thousand  feet, 
while  to-day  the  value  ranges  from  $4  to  $7  per  thousand  feet. 

The  western  hemlock  grows  in  the  Pacific  Coast  forests,  asso- 
ciated chiefly  with  Douglas  fir  and  western  red  cedar.  The  lum- 
ber is  not  regarded  with  favor,  although  it  is  superior  to  that  of 
eastern  hemlock.  The  bark  is  richer  in  tannin  but  it  is  not  used 
extensively,  because  there  are  not  many  tanning  establishments 
in  the  region  and  extract  plants  have  not  been  developed  because 
high  freight  rates  to  eastern  points  limit  the  available  market. 
The  timber  is  used  for  general  construction  purposes  and,  to  a 
limited  extent  in  Oregon,  for  the  manufacture  of  paper  pulp. 

The  yield  per  acre  ranges  from  7000  to  30,000  board  feet. 

The  lumber  cut  for  1910  was  approximately  166,705,000  feet. 

Some  records  of  the  value  of  western  hemlock  stumpage  are 
as  follows: 

1902 1 $1.00 

1906^ 0.47 

1909 1.50 

Redwood.  —  The  redwood  {Sequoia  sempervirens)  is  confined  to 
a  narrow  belt  from  10  to  30  miles  wide  near  the  Pacific  Coast, 

1  Allen,  Edward  T. :  The  Western  Hemlock.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Forestry,  Bulle- 
tin No.  2,2,,  1902,  p.  28. 

2  Sale  of  Idaho  school  lands. 


FOREST  RESOURCES  II 

extending  southward  from  southern  Oregon  to  San  Luis  Obispo 
County  in  Cahfornia.  It  is  associated  with  Douglas  lir,  tanbark 
oak  (Quercus  densifiora) ,  western  red  cedar  and  western  hemlock. 
The  chief  commercial  stands  are  in  Humboldt  and  Del  Nort' 
counties  in  the  northern  part  of  Cahfornia. 

The  average  yield  per  acre  is  from   60,000   to   75,000  fe- 
although  100,000  feet  per  acre  is  not  uncommon.     Single  af 
are  said  to  have  yielded  1,500,000  feet  of  sawed  lumber,  ai^ 
individual  trees  have  contained  480,000  feet  log  scale  of  mer- 
chantable timber.    The  highest  stand  so  far  reported  is  2,500,000 
feet  per  acre,  but  the  yield  in  merchantable  material  was  re- 
duced 40  per  cent  through  breakage  and  other  losses.     The 
waste  in  logging  redwood  is  enormous,  because  of  the  massive 
size  of  the  trees  and  the  brittle  character  of  the  timber. 

The  trees  average  6  or  7  feet  in  diameter,  although  from  10 
to  14  feet  is  not  uncommon,  with  a  maximum  of  about  20  feet. 
The  clear  length  ranges  from  100  to  200  feet. 

The  lumber  is  manufactured  in  mills  located  near  the  forest, 
hauled  by  rail  to  the  coast,  and  shipped  by  water  to  distributing 
points  or  to  market.  It  is  sold  along  the  Pacific  Coast,  in  the 
Far  East,  and  some  high  grade  lumber  is  marketed  in  the  central 
and  eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  It  furnishes  wide  boards 
of  excellent  quahty  for  panels  and  interior  finish.  In  the  West 
it  is  used  extensively  for  tanks,  flume  boxes,  house  construction, 
fence  posts,  shingles  and  shakes. 

The  lumber  cut^  in  19 10  was  approximately  543,493,000  feet. 

There  is  very  little  redwood  stumpage  on  the  market,  because 
the  greater  part  of  the  timber  is  held  by  companies  which  are 
now  exploiting  it.  The  stumpage  in  1890  was  held  at  about 
80  cents  per  thousand  feet  but  is  now  valued  at  from  $2.50  to 
$3  50,  with  a  maximum  of  $5  per  thousand  feet. 

Cypress.  —  The  commercial  range  of  cypress  {Taxodium 
distichiim)  is  confined  to  a  narrow  strip  of  swampy  land  extend- 
ing along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  from  North  Carolina  to  Florida, 
along  the  Gulf  Coast  in  Florida,  Louisiana  and  western  Missis- 
sippi, and  up  the  Mississippi  River  to  southern  Arkansas. 

^  This  includes  the  cut  of  the  bigtree  {Sequoia  Washingtonia). 


12  LOGGING 

The  average  stands  range  from  5000  to  8000  feet  per  acre, 
the  better  ones  containing  from  15,000  to  20,000  feet  while  an 
occasional  acre  in  Louisiana  reaches  a  maximum  of  100,000 
feet. 

It  has  been  stated  that  at  least  one-third  of  the  standing 
express  is  affected  with  a  fungous  disease,  which  causes  holes 
in  the  wood  from  one-quarter  inch  to  an  inch  wide  and  often 
several  inches  long.  Timber  so  affected  is  called  "pecky"  or 
"peggy  "  cypress.  The  disease  is  caused  by  a  species  of  Daedalia 
which  also  affects  the  incense  cedar  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  Decay 
stops  as  soon  as  the  tree  is  cut  and  manufactured  into  lumber. 
C>press  timber  on  knolls  just  above  the  level  of  the  water  is 
usually  unsound  and  the  trees  are  fewer  in  number  than  on  the 
wet  lands.  Sound  timber  occurs  in  patches  in  the  forest  with- 
out apparent  regularity.  It  is  difficult  to  distinguish  pecky  trees 
before  they  are  cut.  The  trees  in  the  Atchafalaya  River  basin 
are  of  larger  size  and  less  defective  than  those  in  the  Mississippi 
bottoms. 

Cypress  is  a  highly  durable  wood  and  is  especially  esteemed 
for  greenhouse  construction,  certain  forms  of  cooperage,  silos, 
tanks,  shingles,  interior  and  exterior  finish  for  buildings,  and  all 
purposes  where  resistance  to  decay  is  important. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1910  was  approximately  935,659,000  feet. 

It  is  a  swamp  species  wherever  it  occurs  in  commercial  quan- 
tities and  its  exploitation  presents  numerous  problems  not  found 
in  dr>'-land  logging;  therefore,  cypress  logging  for  many  years 
was  difficult,  and  in  some  locahties  was  regarded  as  impossible; 
consequently  the  stumpage  was  not  valuable.  It  is  said  that 
timber  could  be  bought  as  late  as  1876  for  25  cents  per  thousand 
feet.  A  sale  of  a  tract  averaging  10,000  feet  per  acre  was  made 
in  1880  at  75  cents  per  acre.  In  1890,  stumpage  could  be  pur- 
chased for  40  cents  per  thousand  feet  and  a  sale  was  made  in 
1894  for  $5.25  per  acre.  There  is  very  little  cypress  stumpage 
on  the  market  to-day,  because  it  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  opera- 
tors. The  present  prices  range  from  $5  to  $5.50  per  thousand 
feet.  The  increase  in  value  is  due  to  improved  methods  of 
power  logging. 


FOREST    RESOURCES 


13 


Eastern  Spruces.  —  There  are  three  species  which  are  found 
chiefly  in  Maine,  northern  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  New  York, 
West  Virginia  and  North  CaroKna.  They  are  the  white  spruce 
(Picea  canadensis),  red  spruce  (P.  rubra)  and  the  black  spruce 
(P.  mariana).  The  present  stand  is  estimated  at  50,000,000,000 
feet,  four-fifths  of  which  is  in  New  England  and  New  York. 

Spruce  occurs  in  pure  stands  on  the  higher  elevations,  and  in 
mixture  with  beech,  birch,  hard  maple  and  eastern  hemlock  on 
the  lower  elevations.  It  reaches  its  best  form  in  the  mountains 
of  West  Virginia  at  an  elevation  of  from  3000  to  4600  feet.  Bal- 
sam fir  {Abies  balsamea)  is  associated  with  spruce  in  the  northern 
part  of  its  range  and  is  now  marketed  with  it  for  pulp  wood, 
without  distinction  as  to  price. 

Spruce  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  species  for  the  production 
of  paper  pulp  and  several  million  cords  of  Canadian  and  domestic 
spruce  are  consumed  annually  for  this  purpose.  In  addition  it 
is  used  for  house  timbers,  clapboards  and  general  construction 
purposes.  The  chief  home  markets  are  in  New  England  and 
the  Northern  tide- water  ports. 

The  following  shows  the  approximate  stands  in  the  various 
states: 


Stands  per  acre. 

Average. 

Maximum. 

New  York                                     

Board  feet. 
2,000-  3,000 
3,000-   4,000 
3,000-  4,000 
3,000-  4,000 
6,000-10,000 

Board  feet. 
15.000 
15,000-20,000 
40,000 
15.000 
60,000 

Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

West  Virginia 

The  cut  of  lumber  in  19 10  was  1,162,931,000  feet. 

Spruce  pulpwood  stumpage  in  northern  New  York  is  held  at 
from  $3.50  to  $4  per  cord  and  saw  logs  at  from  $1.50  to  $2  per 
standard  for  well-located  timber.  Saw  timber  in  New  Hamp- 
shire is  held  at  from  $5.50  to  $6  per  thousand  feet,  pulpwood  in 
Maine  at  from  $4  to  $4.50  per  cord,  and  saw-log  timber  in  West 
Virginia  at  from  $4  to  $5  per  thousand  feet. 


14  LOGGING 

Western  Cedars.  —  The  cedars  of  the  Pacific  Coast  which  are 
of  the  greatest  commercial  importance  are  the  western  red  cedar 
(Thuya  plicata),  the  yellow  cypress  (Chamcecyparis  nootkatensis) , 
Port  Orford  cedar  (C  lawsoniana)  and  the  incense  cedar  {Libo- 
cedrus  decurrens). 

Western  red  cedar  is  the  most  important  shingle  wood  in  the 
United  States,  and  is  also  cut  extensively  for  telephone  and 
telegraph  poles.  When  cut  into  lumber  it  is  used  for  car  siding 
and  roofing,  weather-boarding,  pattern-making,  boat  building, 
cabinet  manufacture  and  a  variety  of  other  purposes  where 
strength  is  not  required. 

It  seldom  occurs  in  pure  stands,  but  is  associated  with  Douglas 
fir,  western  hemlock,  western  larch  {Larix  occidentalis) ,  the 
several  firs  and  redwood.  The  average  stand  per  acre  over 
large  areas  is  from  9000  to  10,000  feet,  with  maximum  stands 
of  40,000  feet. 

Stumpage  on  Puget  Sound  is  worth  from  $1.50  to  $2  per  cord, 
and  saw  timber  from  $3  to  $4  per  thousand  feet.  On  a  five- 
year  sale  (1907-1912)  made  on  the  Kaniksu  National  Forest, 
cedar  poles  brought  i^  cents  per  running  foot,  and  saw  timber 
$2  per  thousand. 

Yellow  cypress,  which  is  less  widely  known  in  the  market,  is 
used  for  boat  building,  cabinet  work,  cigar  boxes,  lead  pencils 
and  interior  finish. 

It  is  associated  with  Sitka  spruce  {Picea  sitchensis),  western 
hemlock,  and  other  species  of  minor  importance.  It  occurs 
singly,  or  in  small  groups,  and  in  Alaska  runs  from  500  to  2500 
feet  per  acre.  Single  acres  are  said  to  contain  40,000  feet.  The 
stumpage  value  ranges  from  $1  to  $10  per  thousand. 

Port  Orford  cedar  is  limited  in  amount  and  is  not  marketed 
extensively.  It  is  a  favorite  wood  for  ship  building,  and  is  also 
used  for  interior  finish,  outside  trim,  match  wood  and  cabinet 
work  for  which  it  is  especially  fitted.  It  is  usually  associated 
with  western  red  cedar,  Sitka  spruce,  western  hemlock  and 
Douglas  fir.  It  occurs  as  single  trees,  rarely  in  groups.  Sales 
of  private  stumpage  to  small  loggers  have  brought  from  $3.50 
to  $4  per  thousand. 


FOREST   RESOURCES  15 

Incense  cedar  is  not  cut  into  lumber  to  any  extent,  because 
of  the  excessive  taper  of  the  bole,  and  also  because  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  timber  is  attacked  by  a  fungus  (Dcedalia  vorax) 
which  excavates  galleries  throughout  the  wood  similar  in  char- 
acter to  the  "peck"  in  cypress.  The  timber  is  used  chiefly  for 
fence  posts,  laths,  shingles,  cigar  boxes,  pencil  stock,  and  the 
best  grade  lumber  for  furniture  and  for  mining  and  irrigation 
flumes. 

It  is  associated  with  western  yellow  pine,  sugar  pine,  Douglas 
fir,  western  white  pine  and  white  fir  {Abies  concolor).  The  stand 
per  acre  in  California  ranges  from  500  to  2000  board  feet  per 
acre.  The  stumpage  value  ranges  from  $2  to  $3  per  thousand 
feet. 

The  lumber  cut  of  western  cedars  in  1910  was  approximately 
288,587,000  feet  of  lumber  and  9,167,000,000  shingles. 

Sugar  Pine.  —  Sugar  pine  {Pinus  lamhertiana)  is  found  chiefly 
in  southern  Oregon  and  in  California  where  it  is  an  important 
commercial  tree.  It  never  occurs  in  pure  stands  but  is  found 
associated  with  western  yellow  pine,  incense  cedar  and  Douglas 
fir  on  the  lower  limits  of  its  range;  and  with  white  fir,  red  fir 
(Abies  magnifica)  and  the  bigtree  on  the  higher  elevations.  The 
yield  in  the  Sierras  ranges  from  2000  to  15,000  feet  per  acre 
with  a  maximum  of  60,000  feet.  An  occasional  tree  contains 
54,000  feet. 

Sugar  pine  is  especially  prized  for  the  manufacture  of  "  shakes  " 
or  spht  shingles,  and  is  also  extensively  used  for  fruit  boxes, 
match  wood,  sashes,  doors  and  blinds,  ship  decking  and  interior 
trim.  The  lumber  is  often  substituted  for  that  of  eastern  white 
pine.  The  greater  part  is  marketed  locally,  but  it  is  also  shipped 
as  far  East  as  New  England. 

The  cut  in  1910  was  103,165,000  feet.  The  bulk  of  the  re- 
maining stumpage  is  in  the  Sierras  in  California  and  ranges  in 
value  from  $2.50  to  $4  per  thousand  feet. 

Lodgepole  Pine.  —  This  tree  {Pinus  contorta)  is  found  from 
Alaska  to  California  and  east  to  Colorado,  and  is  used  for  mine 
timbers,  fence  posts,  lumber  and  crossties.  The  timber  is  small 
and  knotty  and  lumber  sawed  from  it  is  suitable  only  for  general 


i6 


LOGGING 


construction  purposes.     It  is  not  in  demand  for  interior  finish 
except  in  the  vicinity  of  the  region  where  it  is  manufactured. 

Lodgepole  pine  often  occurs  in  dense  pure  stands  in  the 
Sierras.  At  high  elevations  it  is  frequently  associated  with 
Douglas  fir,  alpine  fir  {Abies  lasiocarpa)  and  other  firs. 

YIELD   PER  ACRE   IN   BOARD   FEET,    GALLATIN   COUNTY, 
MONTANA  1 

(Cutting  to  a  diameter  breast  high  of  ii  inches.) 


Type. 

Lodgepole  pine. 

Creek 

Board  feet. 
5900 
7200 
3800 
7000 

1 

Eastern  Slope 

Western  Slope 

YIELD   PER   ACRE   IN   BOARD   FEET,    MEDICINE   BOW 
NATIONAL  FOREST,    WYOMINQi 

(Cutting  to  a  diameter  breast  high  of  ir  inches.) 


Type. 


Pine  forest: 
Quality  I... 
Quality  II. 
Quality  III. 

Spruce  forest. 


Lodgepole  pine. 


Ties, 
6  inches  by 
8  inches  by 

8  feet. 


Number. 
200 
130 


Props. 


1 100 
600 
240 
230 


Board  feet. 
3000 


Board  feet. 
1000 


Average  for  tract . 


108 


500 


From  Forest  Tables — Lodgepole  Pine.     Circular  126,  U.  S.  Forest  Servi 


1907,  pp.  25-24. 


Lodgepole  in  pure  stands  ranges  between  4000  and  30,000  feet 
per  acre,  the  average  over  large  areas  being  about  8000  feet. 

The  cut  in  1910  was  26,634,000  board  feet. 

The  stumpage  value  on  National  Forests  ranges  from  $1.50  to 
$2.50  per  thousand  board  feet. 

Western  Spruce.  — •  The  spruces  of  importance  in  the  western 
part  of  the  United  States  are  the  Engelmann  spruce  {Picea 
en^elmanni)  and  the  Sitka  spruce. 


FOREST   RESOURCES  1 7 

Engelmann  spruce,  which  is  of  the  greater  importance  com- 
mercially, grows  at  high  altitudes  often  in  pure  forests.  It  is 
frequently  associated  with  alpine  fir,  western  larch,  lodgepole 
pine  and  western  yellow  pine. 

The  timber  is  sawed  into  lumber  and  dimension  stock  for 
local  construction  purposes. 

On  moist  flats  and  along  streams  Engelmann  spruce  and  lodge- 
pole  pine  form  stands  of  from  40,000  to  50,000  feet.  On  the 
Pike  National  Forest  the  maximum  stands  are  35,000  feet  and 
the  average  stands  5000  feet.  In  the  Sopris  National  Forest 
in  Colorado,  the  stands  of  Engelmann  spruce  and  associated 
species  range  from  4000  to  20,000  feet  per  acre,  of  which  the 
former  constitutes  from  35  to  75  per  cent.  The  stumpage  value 
ranges  from  $2  to  $3.50  per  thousand  feet. 

Sitka  spruce  is  the  chief  commercial  species  of  Alaska.  It  is 
seldom  found  in  pure  stands,  except  on  areas  of  from  i  to  3  acres 
on  which  the  stand  ranges  from  10,000  to  90,000  feet  per  acre. 
Individual  trees  have  been  reported  which  contain  25,000  feet. 
On  the  lower  elevations,  which  are  the  only  places  it  grows  to 
commercial  size,  it  is  usually  associated  with  western  hemlock, 
western  red  cedar  and  yellow  cypress. 

In  Alaska  it  is  used  chiefly  for  box  shooks  for  the  salmon 
industry  and  for  building  material. 

The  stumpage  value  on  the  Tongass  National  Forest  is  about 
$1  per  thousand  feet. 

The  lumber  cut  of  western  spruce  in  19 10  was  approximately 
286,981,000  feet,  the  greater  part  of  which  came  from  Washing- 
ton. 

Other  Conifers.  —  Among  the  conifers  cut  in  small  quantities 
are  the  eastern  larch  {Larix  americana),  now  often  sold  with 
Norway  and  white  pine,  and  also  made  into  crossties,  posts  and 
poles;  the  western  larch  {L.  occidentalis) ,  manufactured  into 
dimension  lumber,  ties  and  posts;  eastern  red  cedar  {Juniperus 
virginiana) ,  used  chiefly  for  pencil  wood,  posts  and  poles ;  and  a 
number  of  pines  found  in  the  western  part  of  the  country  which 
are  of  local  importance  only. 


l8  LOGGING 


HARDWOODS 


The  hardwood  forests  extend  south  from  northern  New  York 
through  the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  from  central  Wis- 
consin and  Michigan  through  the  valleys  of  the  Mississippi  and 
Ohio  rivers  to  central  Louisiana,  Mississippi  and  Alabama,  and 
west  to  the  Great  Plains.  The  chief  commercial  species  are  the 
oaks,  sugar  maple,  yellow  poplar,  red  gum,  chestnut,  beech, 
birch,  basswood,  hickory,  elm,  ash  and  cottonwood. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1910  of  the  above  hardwoods  was  8,615,- 
000,000  feet  or  21.5  per  cent  of  the  total  lumber  cut  of  the 
country. 

Yellow  Poplar.  —  Among  the  more  valuable  hardwoods  is  the 
yellow  poplar  {Liriodendron  tulipifera)  which  occurs,  chiefly,  in 
the  rich  hardwood  forests  of  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Tennessee, 
North  Carolina  and  Kentucky.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  weather- 
boarding,  interior  finish,  furniture,  bodies  of  automobiles  and 
carriages,  wagon  boxes,  woodenware,  box  boards  and  paper 
pulp.  Wide  boards  command  a  high  price  for  panels  and 
shelving. 

The  average  stand  per  acre  is  seldom  more  than  2000  feet. 
The  timber  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  in  1890  was  held  at 
60  cents  per  thousand  feet  but  it  now  commands  a  stumpage 
price  of  from  $8  to  $12  per  thousand  feet. 

The  cut  in  1910  was  734,926,000  board  feet. 

Oaks.  — White  oak  {Quercus  alba)  is  the  most  valuable  of  the 
numerous  oaks  and  the  best  timber  comes  from  the  Appalachian 
region.  The  wood  is  used  principally  for  high  grade  furniture, 
cooperage  stock,  car  frame  material,  flooring,  interior  finish, 
agricultural  implements,  and  crossties  for  railroads. 

Several  species  belonging  to  the  white  oak  group  are  now 
marketed  as  white  oak,  although  but  few  show  the  fine  radial 
markings  of  Quercus  alba.  White  oak  stumpage  values  range 
between  $6  and  $12  per  thousand  feet. 

The  red  and  black  oaks  are  indigenous  to  the  same  region  as 
the  white  oaks  and  are  now  used  extensively  for  cooperage, 
interior  finish,  car  frame  material,  furniture  and  many  other 


FOREST   RESOURCES  19 

uses  where  strength  is  desirable.  They  are  not  as  durable  as 
the  white  oaks  but  large  quantities  are  treated  with  chemical 
preservatives  and  used  for  crossties. 

The  stumpage  is  valued  at  from  $3  to  $6  per  thousand. 

The  cut  of  oak  lumber  of  all  kinds  in  191 1  was  3,098,444,000 
feet. 

Maple.  —  Lumber  is  manufactured  from  several  species, 
namely,  the  hard  maple  {Acer  saccharum),  the  black  maple  {A. 
nigrum),  the  red  maple  {A.  rubrum),  the  silver  maple  (A.  sac- 
charinum)  and  the  Oregon  maple  {A .  macro phyllum) .  The  hard 
and  the  black  maples  produce  the  most  valuable  lumber,  which 
is  cut  chiefly  in  Pennsylvania,  the  Lake  States,  New  York,  West 
Virginia,  Ohio,  Indiana  and  some  of  the  southern  and  New 
England  States.  The  lumber  is  prized  for  flooring  and  furniture 
and  is  also  used  for  woodenware  and  gunstocks.  Large  quan- 
tities of  the  rough  wood  are  utihzed  in  destructive  distillation. 

The  lumber  cut  of  maple  in  1910  was  1,006,637,000  feet. 

Maple  stumpage  in  New  York  is  valued  at  from  $2.50  to  $5 
per  thousand  feet;  in  Michigan  from  $5  to  $8  per  thousand 
feet;  and  in  Indiana  from  $6  to  $8  per  thousand  feet. 

Red  Gum.  —  The  red  gum  {Liquidamhar  styraciflua)  is  largely 
a  tree  of  the  lowlands  and  is  found  in  the  best  form  and  in  the 
heaviest  stands  along  the  Mississippi  River  bottoms  in  Arkansas, 
Mississippi,  Missouri,  Tennessee  and  Kentucky. 

Virgin  bottom  lands  in  Missouri  contain  about  5500  feet  per 
acre  of  merchantable  timber  and  in  South  Carohna  4000  feet. 
Second-growth  bottom  land  in  the  latter  state  runs  as  high  as 
13,000  feet  per  acre.  The  maximum  stands  in  the  Mississippi 
River  bottoms  seldom  exceed  15,000  feet. 

Red  gum  has  only  recently  been  an  important  factor  in  the 
hardwood  market  because  the  wood  warps  badly  in  seasoning. 
Improved  methods  of  handling  and  the  scarcity  of  other  species 
have  greatly  increased  its  use,  and  it  is  now  employed  extensively 
for  furniture,  tobacco  boxes,  fruit  packages,  and  slack  cooperage. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1910  was  610,208,000  feet. 

Stumpage  values  in  the  South  range  from  $1  to  $2.50,  and  in 
Indiana  from  $5  to  $8  per  thousand  feet. 


20  LOGGIXG 

Chestnut.  —  Chestnut  (Castanea  detitata)  is  widely  distributed 
over  the  Central  hardwood  region,  although  nearly  50  per  cent 
of  the  entire  product  is  manufactured  in  West  Virginia,  Penn- 
sylvania and  Virginia.  The  wood  is  extensively  used  for  furni- 
ture, interior  finish,  shingles,  fencing,  telephone  poles,  veneer 
backing,  slack  cooperage  and  for  the  production  of  tannin 
extract. 

Chestnut  grows  in  mixed  forests  of  oak  and  other  hardwoods 
but  the  sprout  forests  are  largely  pure. 

The  stand  per  acre  is  extremely  variable,  but  averages  from 
2000  to  6000  feet.  Chestnut  stumpage  ranges  from  $3  to  $5 
per  thousand  feet  in  the  Appalachian  region  and  from  $5  to  $7 
per  thousand  feet  in  the  sprout  forests  of  Connecticut. 

During  the  year  1910,  535,049,000  feet  of  lumber  and  52,- 
091,000  shingles  were  manufactured  from  this  species. 

Beech.  —  Beech  (Fagus  americana)  is  found  chiefly  in  the 
northern  and  Appalachian  forests  associated  with  maple  and 
birch,  but  the  center  of  beech  lumber  production  is  in  Michigan, 
Indiana  and  Pennsylvania. 

The  chief  uses  of  beech  are  for  tool  handles,  clothes  pins, 
flooring,  slack  cooperage,  veneers  and  woodenware.  Large 
quantities  of  rough  wood  are  used  for  the  production  of  wood 
alcohol  and  other  products  of  distillation. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1910  was  437,325,000  feet. 

Stumpage  values  in  northern  New  York  and  at  points  in  the 
South  range  from  $2  to  $3.50  per  thousand  feet;  in  Michigan 
from  $3  to  $5  per  thousand  feet;  and  in  the  jMiddle  West  from 
$6  to  $10  per  thousand  feet. 

Birch.  —  The  commercial  distribution  of  birch  is  largely  con- 
fined to  the  states  of  Wisconsin,  Michigan  and  Maine  and  is 
associated  chiefly  with  maple  and  beech,  in  stands  running  from 
3000  to  8000  feet  per  acre.  Paper  birch  {Betula  papyrijera)  in 
Maine  averages  about  two  cords  per  acre,  with  a  maximum  of 
fifty  cords  per  acre. 

The  yellow  birch  {B.  lutea)  and  sweet  birch  {B.  lento)  are  used 
largely  for  furniture,  vehicle  hubs,  tool  handles,  flooring,  interior 
finish,  veneers,  cooperage,  spool  stock  and  novelties.     The  paper 


FOREST   RESOURCES  21 

birch  of  Maine  is  used  chiefly  for  spool  stock,  shoe  pegs  and 
shanks,  toothpicks  and  novelty  work. 

The  lumber  cut  of  birch  in  igio  was  420,769,000  feet,  of  which 
the  paper  birch  comprised  32,000,000  feet. 

Yellow  birch  stumpage  in  northern  New  York  is  valued  at 
from  $4  to  $6  per  thousand  feet  with  somewhat  higher  values 
in  the  Lake  States.  Paper  birch  in  Maine  is  valued  at  from  75 
cents  to  $2  per  cord,  the  average  being  $1.50. 

Basswood.  —  This  tree  {Tilia  americana)  is  associated  with 
hemlock  and  other  hardwoods  in  the  northern  and  Appalachian 
forests.  It  is  manufactured  extensively  into  siding,  rotary-cut 
veneer,  car  hning,  heading,  excelsior,  baskets,  slack  cooperage, 
furniture  backs,  carriage  bodies,  pulpwood,  etc.  Although  not 
durable  it  is  one  of  the  more  valuable  hardwoods  because  of  its 
Hght  weight,  and  the  odorless  character  of  the  wood. 

The  lumber  cut  in  1910  was  344,704,000  feet.  The  chief 
center  of  manufacture  is  Wisconsin  where  nearly  40  per  cent  of 
the  total  output  is  produced. 

Stumpage  values  range  from  $5  to  $7  per  thousand  feet  for 
well-located  timber. 

Hickory.  —  The  present  commercial  stands  of  hickory  are 
found  in  the  Appalachian  and  the  Mississippi  River  regions. 
There  are  four  species  of  commercial  importance,  namely,  the 
big  shellbark  {Hicoria  laciniosa),  the  shagbark  {H.  ovata),  the 
pignut  {H.  glabra)  and  the  mockernut  {H.  alba).  The  strongest 
and  toughest  one  is  the  pignut,  although  the  shagbark  is  but 
slightly  inferior  to  it.  The  big  shellbark  is  of  medium  quality 
only,  while  the  mockernut  is  lacking  in  toughness,  although  it 
is  strong. 

The  manufacture  of  hickory  lumber  centers  in  Tennessee, 
Arkansas,  Kentucky  and  Missouri.  These  states  now  produce 
more  than  50  per  cent  of  the  total  cut. 

Hickory  occurs  singly  among  other  hardwoods.  The  stands 
over  large  areas  frequently  range  from  200  to  400  board  feet 
per  acre. 

About  65  per  cent  of  the  hickory  cut  is  used  for  vehicle  stock, 
10  per  cent  for  tool  handles,  9  per  cent  for  heavy  wagons,  8  per 


22  LOGGING 

cent  for  agricultural  implements,  and  the  remainder  for  novelties 
of  various  kinds.  About  1,000,000  cords  are  used  annually  for 
fuel.  Saplings  are  sometimes  split  into  barrel  hoops,  but  this 
practice  is  less  common  than  formerly. 

The  lumber  cut  for  1910  was  272,252,000  feet. 

Stumpage  prices  in  the  South  range  from  $5  to  $8  per  thousand 
feet;  in  northern  Ohio  from  $15  to  $25  per  thousand  feet;  and 
in  eastern  Pennsylvania,  Maryland  and  Virginia  from  $15  to 
$35  per  thousand  feet. 

Elm.  —  There  are  three  elms  commercially  important  in  the 
United  States,  the  rock  elm  {Ulmus  racemosa),  slippery  or  red 
elm  (U.  pubescens)  and  the  white  elm  (U.  americana),  all  of 
which  grow  in  the  rich  bottom  lands  along  streams.  Over  one- 
half  of  the  output  is  from  the  states  of  Wisconsin,  Michigan  and 
Indiana.  Elm  wood  is  used  for  hubs,  bicycle  rims,  slack  cooper- 
age, coiled  hoops,  basket  splints,  etc. 

The  cut  in  1910  was  over  265,107,000  feet. 

Stumpage  values  in  the  South  range  from  $3  to  $5  and  in 
Indiana  and  the  Middle  West  from  $8  to  $10  per  thousand 
feet. 

Ash.  —  There  are  numerous  species  of  ash  in  the  United 
States,  but  about  60  per  cent  of  the  lumber  cut  is  white  ash 
{Fraxinus  americana),  and  30  per  cent  black  ash  {F.  nigra).  The 
greater  part  of  the  lumber  output  is  manufactured  in  the  states 
bordering  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers  and  also  in  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia  and  Vermont.  Fully  one- 
half  of  the  output  is  produced  in  Arkansas,  Ohio,  Wisconsin, 
Kentucky,  Indiana  and  Michigan. 

It  is  in  especial  favor  for  poles  and  shafts  of  wagons  and 
carriages,  sporting  goods,  agricultural  implements,  hoops  and 
staves  for  pork  barrels,  packages  and  tool  handles. 

The  lumber  cut  for  1910  was  246,035,000  feet. 

In  the  lower  Mississippi  bottoms  the  timber  ranges  from 
2000  to  5000  feet  per  acre. 

The  stumpage  values  in  Michigan  in  1890  ranged  from  $1  to 
$3.50  per  thousand  feet.  To-day  they  are  from  $6  to  $12  per 
thousand  feet. 


FOREST   RESOURCES  23 

Cottonwood.  —  Several  species  (Populus  sp.)  are  found  in 
abundance  and  of  large  size  in  the  bottoms  of  the  lower  Mis- 
sissippi River.  The  greater  part  of  the  annual  production  comes 
from  the  states  of  Arkansas,  Louisiana  and  Mississippi.  It  is 
in  demand  for  boxes,  wood  pulp,  lining  for  refrigerator  cars, 
excelsior,  woodenware  and  cheap  furniture. 

The  cut  in  1910  was  220,305,000  feet,  which  was  the  lowest 
output  in  many  years. 

The  stumpage  in  Mississippi  is  valued  at  from  $1.50  to  $3 
per  thousand  feet  and  in  Indiana  at  from  $6  to  $10. 

Other  Hardwoods.  —  There  are  many  other  hardwoods  placed 
on  the  market,  among  them  tupelo  or  bay  poplar  {Nyssa  aquat- 
ica),  which  is  manufactured  into  flooring,  interior  finish,  plank- 
ing, and  box  boards  in  Louisiana  and  other  Southern  States; 
the  cucumber  tree  {Magnolia  acuminata) ,  sold  largely  as  yellow 
poplar;  the  buckeye  {Mscidus  glabra),  manufactured  into  pulp, 
interior  finish  and  woodenware;  sycamore  {Platanus  occiden- 
talis),  used  for  furniture  and  plug  tobacco  boxes;  black  walnut 
{Juglans  nigra);  cherry  (Prunus  serotina);  and  other  valuable 
cabinet  woods.  These  timbers  with  the  exception  of  tupelo 
are  common  to  the  South  Central  and  Appalachian  regions  and 
are  associated  with  the  other  hardwoods. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE  TO  CHAPTER  I 

Allen,  E.  T.:  The  Western  Hemlock.     Bui.  No.  33,  U.  S.  Bur.  For.,  1903. 
Betts,  H.  S.:    Properties  and  Uses  of  Southern  Pine.     Cir.  164,  U.  S.  Forest 

Service,  1909. 
Boisen,  Anton  T.,  and  Newlin,  J.  A.:  The  Commercial  Hickories.     Bui.  80, 

U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  19 10. 
Chittenden,  Alfred  K.,  and  Hatt,  W.  Kendrick:   The  Red  Gum.     Bui.  58, 

U.  S.  Bur.  For.,  1905. 
Dana,  S.  T.:   Paper  Birch  in  the  Northeast.     Cir.  163,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  1909. 
Fisher,  Richard  T.:  The  Redwood.     Bui.  No.  38,  U.  S.  Bur.  For.,  1903. 
Foster,  H.  D.,  and  Ashe,  W.  W.:  Chestnut  Oak  in  the  Appalachians.    Cir.  135, 

U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  1907. 
Frothingham,  E.  H.:  Douglas  Fir;  .\  Study  of  the  Pacific  Coast  and  Rocky 

Mountain  Form.     Cir.  150,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  1909. 
Frothingham,  Earl  H.:    Second-growth  Hardwoods  in  Connecticut.     Bui.  96, 

U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  Washington,  D.  C,  191 2,  pp.  24-29. 


24  LOGGING 

Greeley,  W.  B.,  and  Ashe,  W.  W.:  White  Oak  in  the  Southern  Appalachians. 

Cir.  105,  U.  S.  For.  Sen,  1907. 
Hall,  William  L.,  and  Maxwell,  Hu:  Uses  of  Commercial  Woods  of  the  United 

States;   II.  Pines.     Bui.  99,  U.S.  For.  Ser.,  1911. 
:  Uses  of  Commercial  Woods  of  the  United  States;  I.  Cedars, 

Cypresses  and  Sequoias,  Bui.  95,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  1911. 
Hoffman,  Bruce  E. :   Sitka  Spruce  of  Alaska.     Proc.  of  the  Society  of  American 

Foresters,  Vol.  VII,  No.  2,  pp.  226-238. 
MOHR,   Charles:    The  Timber  Pines  of  the   Southern   United   States.     Bui. 

No.  13,  U.  S.  Div.  of  For.,  Washington,  D.  C,  1897. 
Record,  Samuel  J. :   Suggestions  to  Woodlot  Owners  in  the  Ohio  Valley  Region. 

Cir.  138,  U.  S.  For.  Service,  p.  9,  Washington,  D.  C,  1908. 
Spaulding,  V.  M.:  The  White  Pine.     Bui.  No.  22,  U.  S.  Div.  of  For.,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  1899. 
The  Lumber  Industry.     Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Corporations,  Department 

of  Commerce  and  Labor.      The   American   Lumberman,  Chicago,   Illinois, 

February  18,  191 i. 
The  American  Lumber  Industry.     Official  Report  Tenth  Annual  Meeting 

National  Lumber  Manufacturers  Association.  Chicago,  Illinois,  1912. 


CHAPTER  II 

PROTECTION   OF   FOREST  PROPERTY 

The  two  great  enemies  of  the  forest,  fire  and  wind,  have  caused 
the  loss  of  bilhons  of  feet  of  timber.  Fire  has  been  the  more 
disastrous,  some  years  destroying  timber  and  other  property 
valued  at  milHons  of  dollars.  Although  cut-over  lands  are 
still  largely  neglected,  forest-land  owners  now  manifest  interest 
in  the  protection  of  their  standing  timber. 

FIRES 

The  damage  from  fire  is  greatest  in  the  coniferous  forests  of 
the  Northeast,  the  Lake  States,  the  Inland  Empire,  and  the 
Pacific  Coast,  where  the  stand  over  large  areas  is  sometimes 
killed  outright,  and  occasionally  almost  entirely  consumed. 

Among  the  most  destructive  fires  are  those  which  burn  in 
the  crowns,  leaping  from  tree  to  tree.  These  are  difficult  to 
control  because  they  often  occur  during  high  winds  which  fan 
the  flames  and  carry  burning  brands  for  long  distances  ahead  of 
the  main  conflagration. 

Surface  fires,  which  run  along  the  ground  and  feed  on  the  litter 
and  undergrowth,  are  less  serious  in  their  immediate  results 
but  if  the  heat  is  intense  they  injure  the  bark  and  often  kill  the 
cambium.  The  wounds  provide  excellent  places  for  the  en- 
trance of  fungi  and  insects  which  may  render  the  tree  of  little 
value  in  a  few  years.  The  degree  of  damage  depends  upon  the 
character  and  age  of  the  stand.  Trees  which  have  thick  bark 
suffer  less  than  the  thin-barked  species.  In  the  yellow  pine 
region  of  the  South,  surface  fires  run  through  the  forest  at 
frequent  intervals,  but  are  seldom  hot  enough  to  kill  many  of 
the  larger  trees. 

Ground  fires  are  common  in  the  northern  forests  where  organic 
matter  accumulates  on  the  forest  floor,  sometimes  to  a  depth  of 

25 


26  LOGGING 

several  feet,  through  which  the  roots  ramify  in  all  directions. 
The  vegetable  mold  burns  slowly,  but  fires  in  it  are  difficult  to 
extinguish  and  ultimately  the  soil  is  consumed  and  the  rocks 
are  exposed.  The  trees  are  killed  and  soon  blow  down,  forming 
an  almost  impenetrable  slash  and  a  dangerous  lire  trap.  This 
condition  is  most  pronounced  in  the  coniferous  forests  of  the 
Northeast,  in  the  Lake  States  and  also  in  the  forests  on  the 
Pacific  Coast. 

BRUSH   DISPOSAL 

The  debris  remaining  after  logging  is  a  source  of  great  danger 
to  standing  timber  because  sparks  from  locomotives  and  station- 
ary logging  engines  often  ignite  it,  during  the  dry  seasons,  and 
when  once  started  fire  may  spread  into  the  green  timber. 

Various  states^  have  passed  laws  dealing  with  the  disposal 
of  slash,  and  private  protective  associations  have  also  attacked 
the  problem  with  vigor.  The  first  effective  step  toward  its 
solution  was  taken  by  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service  when  it  assumed 
charge  of  the  National  Forests. 

The  problems  concerned  with  brush  handling  vary  in  dift'erent 
forest  regions,  and  even  in  a  given  region  the  proper  method  of 
deahng  with  the  situation  must  be  studied  for  each  operation. 

In  the  yellow  pine  region  of  the  Southwest  where  the  rainfall 
during  a  portion  of  the  year  is  scanty,  it  often  is  advisable-  only 
to  scatter  the  brush,  for  the  shade  afforded  by  it  is  conducive 
to  the  germination  of  seed  and  is  beneficial  to  reproduction. 
Where  it  is  desired  to  keep  stock  away  from  reproduction  the 
brush  is  also  left  undisturbed.  If  the  fire  risk  is  great,  the 
practice  recommended  by  forest  officers  is  to  pile  the  brush 
in  open  places  and  burn  it  at  a  period  when  the  fire  can  be 
controlled. 

In  the  coniferous  forests  of  New  York,  a  state  law  provides 
for  lopping  the  tops  and  leaving  them  in  situ.  The  weight  of 
the  snow  during  the  first  winter  forces  the  limbs  close  to  the 

1  Among  these  are  New  York,  Minnesota,  Washington  and  Oregon. 

2  Woolsey,  Jr.,  Theodore  S.:  Western  Yellow  Pine  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 
Bulletin  loi,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  1911,  pp.  53-54- 


PROTECTION   OF    FOREST   PROPERTY  27 

ground  and  after  three  or  four  years  decay  largely  eliminates  the 
danger  from  tire.  Fires  in  lopped  slash  do  not  become  as  violent 
as  when  the  brush  is  left  in  the  tops  to  dry  out.  The  cost  of 
lopping  in  the  spruce  forests  of  the  Adirondacks  ranges  from  10 
to  15  cents  per  cord. 

Brush  burning  is  recommended  for  forests  where  the  stand 
of  timber  is  heavy  and  the  brush  dense.  These  conditions  exist 
in  parts  of  the  Lake  States,  Inland  Empire  and  on  the  Pacific 
Coast.  The  practice  is  either  to  pile  and  burn,  or  to  burn  broad- 
cast. Brush  can  be  burned  with  safety  during  the  wet  periods 
in  the  spring  and  fall,  after  a  Hght  fall  of  snow  in  the  early  winter, 
and  in  the  South  during  the  summer  after  heavy  rains. 

Where  the  aim  is  to  save  the  seedHngs  and  young  timber, 
brush  should  be  piled  and  burned.  This  can  be  done  cheapest 
at  the  time  of  logging  because  less  labor  is  required  for  the  work, 
and  the  removal  of  the  slash  facilitates  skidding  and  reduces  its 
cost.  In  white  pine  where  the  brush  is  dense,  the  saving  in 
logging  expense  may  be  greater  than  the  added  cost  due  to  slash 
burning.  As  a  rule  one  extra  man  is  required  for  each  10,000  to 
12,000  feet  logged.  Many  lumbermen  in  the  Lake  States  and 
the  Inland  Empire  do  not  log  extensively  during  the  danger 
period  in  the  summer  months  and  hence  the  above  method  may 
be  employed  to  advantage  during  the  greater  part  of  the  logging 
season. 

The  method  followed  where  brush  is  disposed  of  at  the  time 
of  logging  is  for  the  swampers  of  each  skidding  crew  to  select 
suitable  spots  where  brush  can  be  piled  and  burned  without 
danger  to  standing  trees  and  reproduction  and  where  it  will  not 
inconvenience  the  skidding  teams.  These  piles  should  not  be 
placed  nearer  than  15  feet  to  any  standing  tree.  One  or  more 
fires  are  started  and  the  brush  as  cut  is  thrown  on  the  nearest 
blaze.  Brush  can  be  burned  even  during  rainy  weather  and 
where  there  is  quite  a  heav}^  snow,  because  the  latter  is  shaken 
off  the  branches  in  handhng.  Studies  made  by  the  U.  S.  Forest 
Service  in  Minnesota  show  that  not  over  2  per  cent  of  the  total 
acreage  of  a  given  operation  is  burned  over  when  this  method 
is  employed. 


28  LOGGING 

Piling  and  burning  brush  after  logging  has  not  proved  as 
satisfactory  as  the  above  method,  because  of  the  added  labor 
charge.  It  has  some  advantages  because  the  piles  can  be  built 
in  the  roadways  and  on  skidway  sites  where  there  is  no  timber 
or  reproduction  to  damage. 

In  the  Minnesota  National  Forest  brush  was  piled  after 
logging  and  burned  on  calm  days  when  the  ground  was  damp. 
Burning  commenced  on  the  leeward  side  of  the  cutting.  The 
fires  were  started  in  alternate  piles  in  the  same  row,  which  left 
a  cold  air  space  between  them,  lessened  the  draft  and  reduced 
the  danger  of  damage  to  seedlings  and  standing  timber.  When 
these  piles  were  reduced  to  embers  the  alternate  ones  in  the 
same  row  were  fired.  Each  successive  row  was  burned  in  this 
manner.  A  sufficient  force  of  workers  equipped  with  fire-fighting 
apparatus  was  kept  on  hand  to  hold  the  fires  in  check.  The 
area  burned  over  by  this  method  was  7  per  cent  of  the  total. 

A  contractor  in  Minnesota  states  that  in  stands  composed  of 
equal  parts  of  white  pine  and  Norway  pine  he  has  burned  brush 
for  20  cents  per  thousand  during  open  winters,  and  35  cents  per 
thousand  during  severe  winters.  The  average  cost  in  the  region 
is  from  20  to  25  cents  per  thousand  feet. 

Hardwood  brush  is  more  difficult  to  burn  and  costs  from  30 
to  40  cents  per  thousand  feet  in  the  Lake  States  when  the  brush 
burned  is  less  than  6  inches  in  diameter. 

Broadcast  burning  is  cheaper  where  protection  is  desired  only 
for  logging  equipment  and  green  timber;  where  the  area  is  clear 
cut;  and  in  yellow  pine  forests  in  the  South,  where  timber  is 
left  for  a  second  cutting  to  be  made  in  fifteen  or  twenty  years. 
Broadcast  burning  is  the  only  feasible  method  in  the  Douglas 
fir  region  because  of  the  great  quantities  of  slash  that  must  be 
handled.  On  areas  where  the  stand  runs  as  high  as  100,000  feet 
per  acre,  the  debris  is  often  10  feet  high.  The  method  recom- 
mended by  a  National  Forest  officer^  is  to  burn  off  at  one  time 
areas  of  from  20  to  40  acres  which  are  selected  with  reference  to 
topographic  features.     Burning  should  begin  before  large  areas 

1  Munger,  Thornton  T.:  The  Growth  and  Management  of  Douglas  Fir  in  the 
Pacific  Northwest.     Circular  175,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  1911,  pp.  17-18. 


PROTECTION  OF  FOREST  PROPERTY  29 

are  covered  with  slash.     Back  fires  should  be  built  around  the 

edge  of  the  strip  and  around  all  seed  trees. 
Early  fall  burning  is  recommended  because: 
(i)    Fire  in  stubs  will  soon  be  extinguished  by  rain. 

(2)  Some  seed  trees  are  Hable  to  be  killed  and  the  forest  will 
secure  the  benefit  of  the  seed  crop  if  the  area  is  burned  before 
the  seeds  fall. 

(3)  There  will  be  no  summer  growth  of  weeds  to  check  the 
reproduction  the  following  spring. 

(4)  On  the  higher  elevations  a  clear  burn  cannot  be  secured 
in  the  spring  because  of  moisture  conditions. 

(5)  The  hottest  fire  can  be  secured  in  the  fall  because  the 
brush  is  then  thoroughly  dry. 

The  method  recommended  by  the  Chief  Fire  Warden  of 
Washington  for  preparing  a  slashing  for  broadcast  burning  con- 
sists in  felling  all  large  stubs  on  a  strip  from  300  to  1000  feet  wide 
on  the  leeward  side  of  the  cutting.  Stubs  in  the  green  timber  are 
also  felled  along  this  hne  for  a  distance  of  from  200  to  300  feet 
back  from  the  cut-over  area,  and  if  the  fire  danger  is  great  a  fire 
trail  is  cut  in  the  green  timber  about  50  feet  back  of  the  slashing. 
The  fire  is  usually  started  in  the  afternoon  on  the  leeward  side 
and  is  allowed  to  burn  back  against  the  wind  and  toward  the 
center  of  the  clearing.  Men  are  stationed  along  the  green 
timber  to  prevent  the  fire  from  running  into  it.  If  the  area  is 
large  a  fire  is  started  in  the  center  of  the  cut-over  area  from 
three  to  four  hours  after  the  first  and  allowed  to  work  to  lee- 
ward. Later  a  fire  is  started  on  the  windward  side  and  the 
remainder  of  the  area  burned  over. 

Debris  on  steep  slopes  is  burned  from  the  top  down  to  pre- 
vent timber  on  the  upper  edge  from  being  killed  by  the  intense 
heat  which  would  result  from  a  heavy  fire  running  up  the 
slope. 

In  the  southern  pine  region  forestry  is  not  practiced  at  present 
but  it  is  probable  that  some  lumbermen  will  soon  be  interested 
in  logging  their  virgin  timberlands  so  as  to  secure  a  second  cut 
in  fifteen  or  twenty  years.  Brush  disposal  is  necessary  to  assure 
the  success  of  a  plan  of  this  sort.     Observations  and  experiments 


3° 


LOGGING 


made  in  different  parts  of  the  region,  especially  in  Arkansas, 
have  demonstrated  that  broadcast  burning  offers  sufficient  pro- 
tection to  timber  held  for  a  second  cut  and  can  be  carried  on 
safely  provided  all  slash  is  removed  for  a  distance  of  lo  feet  from 
the  timber  that  is  to  be  left.  The  slash  can  be  handled  by  the 
swampers  and  occasionally  skidding  teams  can  drag  whole  tops 
bodily  from  the  vicinity  of  trees  without  decreasing  the  daily 
output  of  the  skidding  crew.  The  slash  should  be  burned  during 
calm,  damp  periods,  chiefly  in  the  spring  and  fall,  although  it 
may  be  done  on  occasional  damp  days  during  the  hot  summer 
months.  If  a  virgin  forest  is  to  be  logged  during  the  summer 
months  when  broadcast  burning  cannot  be  done  safely,  the 
practice  should  be  to  fire  the  ground  litter  in  the  early  spring 
and  thus  provide  against  ground  fires  running  into  the  slash 
during  the  danger  season.  The  slash  should  then  be  burned 
at  the  first  favorable  opportunity.  The  annual  ground  fires 
which  succeed  the  burning  of  the  slash  will  seldom  be  sufficiently 
violent  to  injure  the  trees  held  for  the  second  cut,  although 
reproduction  often  will  be  killed. 

SPARK   ARRESTERS 

Among  the  many  spark  arresters  on  the  market,  the  following 
are  known  to  have  given  the  best  satisfaction  on  logging  opera- 
tions: 

Sequoia  Spark  Arrester}  —  This  arrester  (Fig.  2)  has  a  f-inch 
mesh  wire  screen  {A)  which  projects  above  a  cinder  pan  {B) 
attached  to  the  stack.  From  the  cinder  pan  outlet  pipes  (C) 
lead  to  a  receptacle  below.  A  light  metal  deflector  is  fixed 
inside  the  pan  to  guide  the  cinders  to  the  outlet  pipes.  The 
sparks  arrested  and  deflected  by  the  screen  are  dropped  into  the 
receiving  pan.  This  arrester  is  used  chiefly  for  wood-burning 
logging  engines.  Users  claim  that  the  engine  exhaust  will  keep 
the  screen  clean  and  that  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  draft. 
The  device  is  fight,  and  easily  put  on  and  removed.  The  list 
prices  range  from  $22.50  to  $45  each. 

1  Manufactured  by  the  Willamette  Iron  and  Steel  Works,  Portland,  Oregon. 


PROTECTION  OF  FOREST  PROPERTY 

A 


31 


Fig.  2. — The  Sequoia  Spark  Arrester. 


Fig.  3.  —  The  South  Bend  Spark  Arrester,     a,  for 
locomotives. 


ing  engines;  b,  for  logging 


The  South  Bend  Spark  Arrester}  —  This  type  is  used  exten- 
sively in  the  Northwest.  The  one  shown  in  Fig.  3a  is  for  logging 
engines  and  that  in  Fig.  36,  which  is  built  larger  and  stronger,  is 
for  logging  locomotives. 

1  Manufactured  by  the  South  Bend  Spark  Arrester  Co.,  South  Bend,  Indiana. 


32 


LOGGING 


It  has  a  round  tapering  shell  (A)  of  sheet  metal,  with  an  inner 
wall;  an  outlet  (B)  at  the  side  for  the  discharge  of  sparks  and 
cinders;  and  a  sheet  metal  cover  (C).  A  cone-shaped  screen 
(D)  attached  to  the  sheet  iron  cover  hangs  within  the  stack,  apex 
downward,  and  deflects  the  cinders  into  the  spark  receiver  at 
the  head  of  the  outlet  pipes.  The  steam,  smoke  and  gas  escape 
through  the  screen,  in  which  the  cinders  do  not  clog  because  of 
its  conical  form.  The  screen  can  be  raised  by  means  of  the  lever 
lift  (£)  when  it  is  unnecessary  to  use  an  arrester.  The  size  of 
arresters  for  locomotives  is  governed  by  the  cylinder  area,  and 
those  for  logging  engines  by  the  diameter  and  height  of  stack 
used.     The  list  price  ranges  from  $io  to  $27  each. 

Spark  Caps.  —  A  successful  spark  arrester,^  Fig.  4,  in  use  by 
a  logging  company  in  Pennsylvania  consists  of  a  j-inch  mesh 


Closed 


Fig.  4.  —  A  Locomotive  Spark  Cap. 


wire  cone-shaped  spark  cap,  24  inches  high  and  18  inches  wide 
at  the  base,  where  it  is  attached  to  a  ring,  which  is  hinged  to 
another  ring  in  the  top  of  the  stack.  When  in  position  the  cone 
is  fastened  down  on  the  stack  by  a  hasp.  When  not  in  use  the 
arrester  may  be  dropped  by  the  side  of  the  stack.  During  the 
fall  and  winter  the  caps  are  removed  and  stored  until  the  follow- 

^  Described  in  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  IV,  No.  i,  page  2. 


PROTECTION  OF  FOREST  PROPERTY 


33 


ing  spring.  Engineers  who  have  used  them  state  that  they  do 
not  interfere  with  the  draft.  The  cost  of  manufacture  in  a  rail- 
road shop  is  about  $3  each. 

Boomerang  Spark  Arrester}  —  This  is  used  by  many  loggers  on 
the  Pacific  Coast  for  coal-burning  and  wood-burning  stationary 
engines.  The  essential  parts  of  the  ar- 
rester, Fig.  5,  are  a  heavy  j-inch  mesh 
round  screen  {A),  shghtly  flaring  toward 
the  top,  on  which  is  mounted  a  heavy 
sheet  iron  cone  {B).  The  latter  ends 
in  a  boomerang  (C)  to  the  open  end  of 
which  a  screen  conveyor  tube  {D)  is  at- 
tached. The  smoke  passes  out  through 
the  screen  while  the  sparks  travel 
straight  up  through  the  steel  cone 
where  they  are  diverted  into  the  boom- 
erang and  led  into  a  receptacle  by  the 
side  of  the  engine.  As  the  sparks  do 
not  come  in  contact  with  the  screen  it 
does  not  become  clogged.  The  prices 
vary  from  $20  to  $38  each  according 
to  the  size. 

Radley-Hunter  Spark  Arrester?  —  This  is  an  effective  loco- 
motive spark  arrester  which  is  used  by  many  lumber  companies, 
especially  in  the  West. 

The  smoke  and  exhaust  pass  up  through  the  main  smoke 
chamber  {A),  Fig.  6,  striking  against  a  spiral  cone  {B)  which  gives 
it  a  whirHng  motion,  and  the  large  cinders  are  thrown  outward  by 
centrifugal  force  against  the  perforated  screen  plate  (C).  This 
plate  has  openings  in  it  large  enough  to  permit  the  passage  of 
sparks  into  the  spark  chamber  {D).  Once  through  this  per- 
forated screen  plate  they  are  beyond  the  Hne  of  active  draft, 
and  by  their  weight  fall  into  the  cinder  receptacle  (G)  from  which 
they  are  removed  through  the  cleaning  out  holes  {F).  The 
lighter  sparks  which  are  not  thrown   through  the  perforated 

'  Manufactured  by  the  Washington  Iron  Works,  Seattle,  Washington. 
2  Manufactured  by  the  Lima  Locomotive  and  Machine  Co.,  Lima,  Ohio. 


5.  —  The  Boomerang 
Spark  Arrester. 


34 


LOGGING 


screen  plate  are  carried  by  the  draft  against  the  fine  netting  {E) . 

In  firing  up,  the  natural  draft  through  (A)  around  (B)  and  under 
(E)  is  unobstructed  by  netting. 
This  has  two  advantages:  (i)  the 
possibility  of  clogging  is  eliminated ; 
(2)  there  is  an  easy,  free  draft  when 
starting  the  lire.  This  stack  acts 
as  a  centrifugal  separator  which 
prevents  the  emission  of  the  larger 
and  more  dangerous  sparks  and 
only  allows  the  escape  of  small, 
light  sparks  which  are  dead  by  the 
time  they  leave  the  stack. 

There  are  numerous  other  spark 
arresters    but    those    described   are 
Fig.  6.-TheRadley-Hunter       ^he    more    common    ones    in    use 
Spark  Arrester.  among  lumbermen. 


FUEL   OIL 

Sparks  from  locomotives  have  proved  such  a  menace  to  forest 
property  that  in  some  states  trunk  line  railroads  which  pass 
through  forest  regions  are  compelled  to  use  fuel  oil  during  the 
danger  season  because  the  many  devices  used  to  prevent  the 
emission  of  live  sparks  from  coal-burning  and  wood-burning 
engines  have  not  proved  entirely  satisfactory.  Fuel  oil  is  not 
extensively  used  by  loggers  either  for  locomotives  or  for  logging 
engines.  For  a  short  period  after  the  discovery  of  the  Texas  oil 
fields  many  loggers  in  the  cypress  region  of  Louisiana  fitted  their 
logging  engines  with  oil  burners  because  fuel  could  be  purchased 
cheap  enough  to  reduce  the  expense  of  operation.  A  marked 
increase  in  the  cost  of  fuel  oil  has  led  many  to  return  to  the  use 
of  coal  or  wood.  Many  loggers  in  the  Inland  Empire  and  the 
Pacific  Northwest  now  use  fuel  oil  successfully  in  locomotives, 
but  so  far  no  method  for  burning  fuel  oil  in  vertical  boilers  has 
been  de\^sed  that  is  satisfactory  for  all  conditions. 


PROTECTION   OF    FOREST   PROPERTY  35 

ELECTRIC   DRIVE 

Electric  power  for  logging  purposes  will  be  used  extensively 
in  the  future  wherever  it  can  be  developed  cheaply.  A  number 
of  western  firms  are  now  experimenting  with  electrically-driven 
yarding  engines  and  although  still  in  the  experimental  stage  they 
are  giving  good  results. 

PROTECTIVE    ASSOCIATIONS 

There  are  several  associations^  of  private  timberland  owners 
organized  in  the  Northeast,  Lake  States,  Inland  Empire  and  the 
Far  West,  whose  object  is  the  prevention  and  control  of  forest 
fires.  These  associations  are  composed  of  the  largest  timber- 
land  owners  in  a  given  region,  whose  problems  of  protection  are 
similar.  Some  are  local  in  character,  others  include  an  entire 
state,  while  one  is  interstate.  During  the  fire  season  many  of 
these  associations  maintain  a  patrol  system  with  lookout  stations, 
reserve  tool  stations,  and  approved  devices  for  fire  fighting. 
They  usually  support  a  paid  secretary  who  is  manager  of  the 
patrol  force  during  the  fire  season  and  who  also  conducts  educa- 
tional campaigns  in  order  to  arouse  public  sentiment  on  the 
forest  fire  question.  Hearty  cooperation  between  state,  national 
and  private  interests  has  been  manifested  from  the  first. 

Associations  are  supported  chiefly  by  an  assessment  of  from 
i|  to  3  cents  per  acre.  During  191 1  the  Western  associations 
protected  954,000  acres  at  an  average  cost  of  I3  cents  per  acre. 

No  concerted  efforts  have  been  made  by  Southern  operators, 
because  the  loss  of  mature  standing  timber  is  not  considered 
great  enough  to  warrant  their  interest. 

1  Among  the  more  important  associations  are:  The  New  Hampshire  Timberland 
Owners  Association,  organized  in  December,  1910;  the  Northern  Forest  Protective 
Association,  covering  the  states  of  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  organized  in  Novem- 
ber, 1910;  the  Washington  Forest  Fire  Association;  the  Oregon  Forest  Fire 
Association,  organized  in  April,  1910;  and  the  Western  Forestry  and  Conservation 
Association,  organized  in  January,  igog,  representing  private  timberland  owners 
in  Washington,  Idaho,  Montana,  Oregon  and  California.  The  object  of  the  last 
association  is  to  work  for  laws  which  will  assist  lumbermen  in  preserving  standing 
timber  from  fire  in  public  and  private  domains. 


36  LOGGING 

INSURANCE    OF    STANDING   TIMBER 

So  far  no  standing  timber  in  the  United  States  has  been 
insured. 

Since  timber  bonds  have  been  on  the  market  there  has  been  a 
demand  on  the  part  of  investors  for  insurance  protection  but 
no  active  steps  have  been  taken  toward  meeting  it.  Forest  fire 
insurance  will  probably  not  be  offered  by  reliable  companies  at 
a  reasonable  rate  until  better  fire  protection  prevails  and  the 
practice  of  forestry  is  widespread.  A  company  would  have  to 
carry  a  large  amount  of  insurance  scattered  over  a  wide  range 
of  conditions  in  order  that  heavy  losses  in  a  particular  region 
would  not  seriously  embarrass  it. 

Even  though  some  of  the  more  prominent  European  companies 
insure  timberlands  they  do  not  regard  such  risks  as  especially 
desirable.  The  Gladbach  Fire  Insurance  Company  of  Munich 
estabhshed  a  forest  fire  insurance  department  in  1895.  Its  rates 
are  regulated  by  the  age,  species,  character  of  stand  and  general 
fire  risk.  On  large,  well-managed  forest  properties  the  premiums 
vary  from  4  marks  to  a  minimum  of  0.45  mark  per  1000  marks 
value,  with  an  increase  where  the  danger  is  great.  The  rate  on 
forest  plantations  and  protection  forests  is  adjusted  for  each 
particular  tract  and  the  premiums  often  exceed  4  marks  per 
thousand.  Only  forests  that  have  a  definite  form  of  manage- 
ment and  in  which  a  sustained  yield  takes  place  are  accepted 
as  risks  and  then  for  minimum  periods  of  ten  years.  The  in- 
surance value  of  the  property  is  preferably  determined  by  an 
expert  appraiser,  although  the  valuation  of  young  timber  may 
be  made  by  the  owner  from  tables  of  cost  furnished  by  the 
company.  In  case  of  disagreement  as  to  the  basis  of  settlement 
between  insurer  and  insured,  provision  is  made  for  a  board  of 
referees  whose  judgment  is  final. 

In  case  the  property  is  over-insured,  the  company  holds  itself 
liable  only  for  the  actual  value.  The  policy  contains  various 
clauses  regarding  the  obligations  of  the  insured  to  exercise  due 
care  in  preventing  fires,  the  use  of  steam  engines  in  the  forest, 
brush  burning,  etc. 


PROTECTION  OF  FOREST  PROPERTY  37 

An  announcement^  has  been  made  recently  of  the  organization 
of  a  mutual  forest  fire  insurance  company  in  Sweden,  which 
marks  a  new  departure  in  European  forest  fire  insurance.  A 
minimum  premium  is  fLxed  and  the  highest  risk  taken  is  75  per 
cent  of  the  forest  value.  The  latter  may  be  based  on  the  owner's 
estimate,  or  determined  by  an  expert  hired  by  the  insurer  at  the 
expense  of  the  insured.  The  damage  is  appraised  by  referees 
representing  both  the  association  and  the  insured,  with  final 
resort  to  the  courts  in  case  of  disagreement. 

The  only  fire  insurance  policy  on  timber  on  this  continent 
was  issued  in  1910  by  Lloyd's,  London,  to  Price  Brothers  Com- 
pany, Ltd.,  of  Quebec,  Canada,  as  additional  protection  for  a 
bond  issue  of  $5,000,000  which  they  wished  to  float.  The  basis 
on  which  the  policy  was  issued  was  the  division  of  the  area 
insured  into  blocks  of  approximately  300  square  miles,  the 
boundaries  of  which  were  natural  barriers  such  as  rivers  or 
mountain  ranges.  The  average  value  of  the  property  per  square 
mile  was  determined  by  estimate,  and  the  poHcy  contains  a  clause 
that  the  insured  must  bear  all  the  loss  up  to  $75,000  in  a  given 
block.  The  underwriters'  HabiHty  in  a  given  block  was  limited 
to  $250,000.  The  premium  rate  was  0.25  of  one  per  cent  of  the 
total  value  of  the  property. 

WIND   DAMAGE 

The  zone  of  greatest  damage  from  wind  is  in  the  yellow  pine 
region  of  the  South  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Many 
heavy  storms  have  passed  through  various  sections  in  this  region 
destroying  milHons  of  feet  of  timber.  In  September,  1909, 
over  one-half  biUion  feet  was  blown  down,  some  of  which  was 
manufactured,  while  large  areas  could  not  be  logged  in  time  to 
save  the  timber  from  insect  attacks.  These  storms  are  espe- 
cially destructive  in  timber  weakened  by  boxing  for  the  extrac- 
tion of  crude  turpentine. 

Extensive  wind  damage  has  been  comparatively  rare  in  the 
Northeast,  although  more  than  1,500,000,000  feet  of  softwoods 

1  See  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  X,  No.  2,  p.  304. 


38  LOGGING 

were  blown  down  in  Maine  during  a  storm  in  November,  1883, 
less  than  2  per  cent  of  which  was  saved. ^ 

Timber  blown  down  in  the  fall  is  free  from  insect  pests  until 
the  following  April,  after  which  the  sap  wood  is  soon  rendered 
valueless  on  account  of  the  holes  made  by  insects  and  by  fungi 
which  enter  these  burrows  and  discolor  the  wood. 

Light  storms  frequently  occur  over  many  parts  of  the  southern 
forests  and  blow  down  individual  trees.  These  can  be  saved 
provided  the  timber  is  not  too  far  distant  from  a  mill.  If  the 
amount  of  timber  is  sufficient  to  warrant  it,  small  mills  are 
established  to  manufacture  the  timber  into  lumber. 

There  is  greater  need  for  tornado  insurance  than  for  fire  in- 
surance on  timber  in  the  South,  but  the  writer  has  no  knowledge 
of  any  such  policies. 

The  percentage  of  the  total  stand  destroyed  by  storms  in 
other  forest  regions  of  the  United  States  is  comparatively  small. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    NOTE    TO    CHAPTER    II 

Adams,  Daniel  W.:    Methods  and  ^Apparatus  for  the  Prevention  and  Control 

of  Forest  Fires,  as  Exemplified  on  the  Arkansas  National  Forest.     Bui.  113, 

U.  S.  Forest  Service,  191 2. 
Anonymous:     Erlauterungen  der  Waldversicherungseinrichtungen   der  Glad- 

bacher  Feuerversicherungs  Gesellschaft.     Druck  von  Weisz  and  Zimmer  in 

M.  Gladbach,  1904. 
Graves,  Henry  S.:    Protection  of  Forests  from  Fire.     Bui.  82,  U.  S.  Forest 

Service,  191 2. 
:    Principles  of  Handling  Woodlands.     John  Wiley  &  Sons. 

New  York,  191 1. 
Holmes,  J.  S.:    Suggestions  for  the  Disposal  of  Brush  in  the  National  Forests. 

U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C,  1907. 
Plummer,  Fred  G.:    Forest  Fires;    Their  Causes,  Extent  and  Effects,  with  a 

Summary  of  Recorded  Destruction  and  Loss.     Bui.  117,  U.  S.  Forest  Ser- 
vice, 191 2. 
Record,  S.  J.:   Forest  Fire  Insurance  in  Germany.     Proceedings  of  the  Society 

of  American  Foresters,  Vol.  II,  No.  3,  1907,  pp.  95-102. 

1  See  Report  of  the  Forest  Commissioner  of  the  State  of  Maine,  pp.  40-42, 
Augusta,  1902. 


CHAPTER  III 

TIMBER   BONDS 

Bonds  with  standing  timber  as  security  were  first  placed  on 
the  market  in  1902,  as  a  result  of  unsatisfactory  financial  con- 
ditions in  the  lumber  industry  in  the  South,  where  lumbermen 
were  often  forced  to  borrow  from  local  banks  to  meet  current 
expenses,  such  as  payroll  and  freight  rates.  These  banks  not 
only  charged  high  rates,  but  often  demanded  pa^Tnent  when 
the  lumberman  was  not  in  position  to  meet  his  obligations 
especially  since  his  products  were  sold  to  parties  who  demanded 
from  sixty  to  ninety  days'  time. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  lumber  industry  required  some  new 
method  of  financing  operations  which  would  ehminate  floating 
debts  and  short  time  loans,  provide  ample  funds  for  financing 
the  operation,  permit  lumbermen  to  carry  a  sufficient  stock  of 
lumber  to  meet  market  requirements,  enable  the  discounting  of 
bills  with  resulting  economy,  and  concentrate  the  indebtedness. 
This  need  was  met  by  the  issuing  of  bonds  which  were  first 
confined  to  the  South,  but  are  now  common  in  the  West,  and 
a  few  issues  have  been  floated  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States. 

Timber  bonds  require  a  higher  margin  of  safety  than  those  of 
most  public  utihties  because  the  profits  on  lumber  are  subject 
to  a  greater  fluctuation  during  industrial  depressions  and  may 
become  so  small  as  to  jeopardize  the  value  of  the  bond.  They 
have  an  advantage,  however,  over  many  industrial  bonds  in  that 
they  are  secured  by  a  natural  resource  fast  being  depleted  and 
the  ownership  of  which  is  rapidly  being  concentrated  in  com- 
paratively few  hands.  This  leads  to  greater  stabiHty  of  values, 
and  timber  bonds  of  the  best  class  are  rapidly  coming  into  favor 
among  conservative  investors,  especially  those  who  are  familiar 
with  forest  properties. 

39 


40  LOGGING 

The  chief  security  rests  upon  the  stumpage.  Conservative 
bond  issues  do  not  aggregate  more  than  40  or  50  per  cent  of  the 
present  value  of  the  stumpage,  based  on  an  appraisal  by  com- 
petent timber  estimators.  In  view  of  the  constant  increase  in 
timber  values  and  the  awakening  interest  in  fire  protection  this 
limit  is  ample  for  the  protection  of  the  bond  holder. 

Sawmill  plants,  railroads  and  logging  equipment  are  often 
made  a  part  of  the  security  offered,  but  they  should  constitute 
only  a  small  portion  of  the  total,  for  while  they  are  indispensable 
to  the  conversion  of  stumpage  into  a  salable  product,  their  value 
is  chiefly  dependent  on  the  supply  of  stumpage  back  of  them. 
Sawmill  plants  rapidly  depreciate  in  value,  are  a  bad  lire  risk, 
and  on  the  exhaustion  of  the  stumpage  the  owners  can  seldom 
realize  more  than  20  or  30  per  cent  of  the  cost.  They  should 
not  be  relied  upon  to  any  great  extent  as  security  even  though 
heavily  insured.  Logging  railroads  are  usually  temporary  in 
character,  and  the  rights-of-way  are  often  abandoned  as  soon 
as  logging  in  a  given  section  is  completed;  therefore,  unless  the 
road  is  to  be  continued  under  charter,  the  chief  value  is  in  the 
worth  of  the  rails  and  equipment. 

Timberland  has  not  as  yet  been  accepted  as  security  in  a  bond 
issue,  but  when  valuable  for  agricultural  or  other  purposes  it 
adds  strength  to  the  financial  resources  of  the  mortgagor. 

Where  the  title  to  the  land  is  in  doubt,  the  timber  standing 
on  it  should  not  be  accepted  as  security.  Timber  rights  that  do 
not  expire  previous  to  the  maturity  of  the  bond  issue  are  accepted 
as  security  at  one-fourth  their  value  by  some  underwriters. 

Some  of  the  more  recent  issues  have  been  guaranteed  by 
wealthy  lumbermen,  which  forms  a  further  basis  of  security 
although  many  desirable  bonds  are  not  so  guaranteed. 

Timber  bonds  as  a  rule  yield  6  per  cent  with  a  premium  vary- 
ing from  loi^  to  no  when  the  bonds  are  retired  before  maturity. 

The  issues  mature  in  from  ten  to  thirty  years,  the  first  of  the 
series  coming  due  in  from  six  months  to  two  years  after  issuance, 
the  remainder  at  semiannual  or  annual  intervals.  The  retire- 
ment of  all  bonds  is  made  optional  and  most  mortgagors  take 
advantage  of  this  fact  to  pay  off  the  issue  as  rapidly  as  possible. 


TIMBER   BONDS  4I 

Bonds  are  issued  in  denominations  of  $500  or  $1,000  with  the 
exception  of  a  speculation  series  on  the  Pacific  Coast  which  may 
be  purchased  in  denominations  of  $100.  The  largest  bond  issue 
was  that  of  the  Long-Bell  Lumber  Company  of  Kansas  City, 
Missouri,  for  $9,000,000,  maturing  in  fourteen  years  at  semi- 
annual periods.  These  draw  6  per  cent  and  any  or  all  may 
be  paid  at  any  interest  period  prior  to  maturity  on  sixty  days' 
notice,  at  a  premium  of  1.5  per  cent  and  accrued  interest. 

Sinking  Fund.  —  The  amount  of  the  bond  issue  is  based 
largely  upon  the  standing  timber  owned  by  the  mortgagor.  It 
is  essential,  therefore,  that  the  loan  be  reduced  as  the  stumpage 
is  cut.  This  is  accomplished  by  depositing  with  a  trustee  a 
certain  sum  for  each  thousand  feet  cut  or  to  be  cut  within  a 
given  period.  These  funds  are  then  used  by  the  trustee  to  meet 
interest  charges  and  also  to  pay  off  bonds  as  they  become  due. 
Many  bonds  call  for  the  payment  of  the  deposit  at  intervals  of 
thirty  or  sixty  days;  in  some  cases  every  six  months,  or  at  the 
end  of  the  logging  season,  where,  as  in  the  North,  logging  is 
carried  on  only  for  a  portion  of  the  year.  The  safest  bonds  are 
those  calling  for  payment  in  advance  of  cutting.  The  amount 
paid  is  often  based  on  an  estimate  of  the  stand  by  ''  forties  "  as 
shown  by  the  sworn  report  of  the  cruiser.  Provision  should  also 
be  made  for  the  payment  for  timber  destroyed  or  injured  by 
fire,  wind,  insects,  or  other  causes,  on  the  same  basis  as  for  the 
timber  that  is  logged.  Numerous  issues  have  not  contained 
provisions  of  this  latter  character,  but  they  cannot  be  regarded 
as  a  safe  investment  because  fire  and  winds  may  wipe  out  a 
large  part  of  the  security,  and  unless  some  provision  is  made  to 
offset  this  the  sinking  fund  will  not  be  sufficient  to  meet  the 
bonds  when  due,  or  at  least  the  bond  purchaser  will  not  have 
the  protection  to  which  he  is  entitled. 

There  is  no  uniformity  as  to  the  amount  per  thousand  feet 
paid  into  the  sinking  fund.  It  ranges  from  $1.50  to  $6  per 
thousand  feet,  the  greater  number  of  bonds  calling  for  a  payment 
ranging  from  $2.50  to  $3.50  per  thousand  feet.  As  a  rule 
lumbermen  prefer  to  pay  approximately  the  value  of  the  stump- 
age  into  the  sinking  fund,  because  as  the  price  of  stumpage  in- 


42  LOGGING 

creases  and  protection  becomes  more  certain,  the  tendency  will 
be  to  regard  timber  bond  issues  with  greater  favor  and  bond 
buyers  will  be  satisfied  with  a  lower  rate  of  interest.  Therefore, 
it  will  be  more  advantageous  to  the  stumpage  owners  to  pay  off 
their  indebtedness  as  soon  as  they  can  do  so,  and  if  necessary  se- 
cure a  later  loan  at  a  more  favorable  rate.  Unless  a  company  is 
well  fortified  financially,  a  heavy  payment  may  impose  a  hard- 
ship on  operators  during  periods  of  depression,  and  if  the  margin 
of  profit  is  not  sufiicient  to  meet  a  high  sinking  fund  rate  the 
company  may  be  forced  to  default  on  the  bonds. 

Floating'  a  Bond  Issue.  —  Timber  bonds  are  now  sold  by  a  few 
brokerage  firms  in  the  East,  and  also  some  of  the  larger  cities  of 
the  Pacific  Coast  but  their  chief  market  is  in  Chicago.  They  are 
handled  by  some  brokers  in  connection  with  other  bonds,  but 
many  of  the  best  issues  have  been  placed  on  the  market  by 
brokers  who  make  a  specialty  of  timber  bonds.  Although  the 
majority  have  been  sound  there  have  been  some  unsafe  issues 
floated,  largely  because  the  investigation  prior  to  the  acceptance 
of  the  bonds  was  superficial,  and  the  brokers  did  not  understand 
the  nature  of  the  securities  they  wished  to  sell. 

A  timberman  who  desires  to  float  a  bond  issue  on  his  property 
appHes  either  to  a  bond  house  or  banker  to  negotiate  the  loan. 

One  of  the  foremost  timber  bond  brokerage  houses  in  the 
country,  which  claims  to  have  sold  about  sixty  million  dollars' 
worth  of  timber  bonds  without  a  default  of  principal  or  interest, 
gives  the  following  as  their  mode  of  procedure  previous  to 
negotiating  a  loan. 

"When  a  lumber  company  desires  to  make  a  bond  issue  on 
its  timberlands  and  sawmill  plant  as  security,  we  require  of  it 
a  general  statement  showing  the  valuation  of  the  property,  the 
number  of  acres  of  timberland,  varieties  of  timber,  the  estimated 
amount  of  lumber  it  will  produce,  and  other  information  of  a 
general  nature,  including  the  amount  and  purpose  of  the  bond 
issue  desired. 

''If  the  security  seems  ample  to  make  such  bond  issue  safe 
and  investigation  into  the  credit  and  standing  of  the  company 
is  satisfactory,  we  agree  to  accept  the  bond  issue  if  our  own 


TIMBER   BONDS  43 

independent  preliminary  investigation  results  in  bearing  out  the 
statement  furnished  by  the  company  that  has  made  apphcation 
for  the  bond  issue. 

"Every  timberland  bond  issue  handled  by  us  must  conform 
to  the  following  high  standard  of  security. 

"  (a)  The  company  issuing  the  bonds  must  be  well  estabhshed 
in  high  credit;  its  officers  and  managers  must  be  thoroughly 
experienced  and  in  good  standing  among  lumbermen. 

"(b)  The  lands  must  be  well  located,  contain  timber  of  good 
quality,  the  amount  thereof  to  be  in  every  case  determined  by 
capable,  well-known  timber  estimators,  employed  by  us  to  cruise 
the  timber  which,  in  every  case,  must  have  a  cash  market  value 
of  at  least  50  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  bond  issue. 

"  (c)  The  titles  to  the  lands  must  be  carefully  examined  and 
approved  by  our  own  legal  counsel. 

"  (d)  The  mortgage  securing  the  bonds  must  contain  strict 
provisions  which  operate  to  insure  the  regular  deposit  of  an 
agreed  amount  per  thousand  feet  for  all  timber  cut  sufficient  to 
retire  all  of  the  bonds  when  about  one-half  of  the  timber  is  con- 
sumed ;  these  deposits  to  be  applied  to  the  payment  of  the  prin- 
cipal of  the  bonds  as  the  several  serials,  semiannually  or  annually, 
become  due.  The  mortgage  makes  provision  for  keeping  careful 
check  upon  the  cutting  of  timber  and  accounting  for  the  same  to 
the  mortgage  trustee." 

If  the  statement  of  the  company  is  satisfactory,  a  detailed 
examination  is  made,  including  a  thorough  estimate  of  the 
standing  timber  and  other  property;  a  study  of  the  efficiency  of 
the  operation;  cost  of  production  and  sales;  inquiry  into  the 
shipping  facilities,  and  all  other  factors  that  may  influence  the 
operation  and  profits  of  the  business.  This  examination  is  made 
by  men  trained  especially  for  the  work  because  it  requires  a  wider 
range  of  knowledge  than  is  possessed  by  the  average  timber 
cruiser. 

The  expenses  incident  to  a  bond  issue  are  borne  by  the  party 
who  desires  to  secure  the  loan.  They  include  an  audit  of  the 
books,  a  timber  cruise,  legal  charges  for  examination  of  titles, 
drawing  the  deed  of  trust,  drafting  the  text  of  the  bond,  charges 


44  LOGGING 

of  the  trustee,  the  cost  of  printing  the  mortgage,  Hthographing 
the  bonds  and  other  incidental  expenses. 

Some  bond  houses  cruise  the  cut-over  areas  at  occasional 
intervals  in  order  to  check  up  the  original  estimates  and  the 
actual  manufacture  of  lumber;  examine  other  portions  of  the 
timberland  property  which  is  security  for  the  bonds  in  order  to 
learn  whether  any  timber  cut  has  not  been  reported,  or  has  been 
killed  by  fire,  wind  or  insects;  and  also  investigate  the  general 
management  of  the  property  for  efficiency.  By  this  means  a 
close  check  is  kept  on  the  conduct  of  the  business  and  the  rights 
of  the  bond  holders  can  then  be  fully  protected. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTES   TO    CHAPTER  III 

Bartrell,  E.  E.:  Questions  of  Law  Encountered  in  Timber  Bond  Issues. 
Annals  of  Am.  Acad.,  Supplement,  ]May,  191 2,  pp.  23-24. 

Braniff,  E.  A.:  Timber  Bonds.  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  .\merican 
Foresters,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1912.     Vol.  VH,  No.  i,  pp.  58-79. 

CuMMiXGS,  W.  J. :  Waste  Material  as  a  Source  of  Profit  and  Added  Security  in 
Timber  Bonds.  Annals  of  American  Academy,  Supplement,  Philadelphia, 
May,  191 2,  pp.  76-80. 

Jones,  A.  F.:  Accountants  Relation  to  Timber  Bond  Issues,  .\nnals  of  .A.m. 
Acad.,  Supplement,  May,  191 2,  pp.  51-58. 

Lacey,  J.  D.:  Science  of  Timber  Valuation,  .\nnals  of  Amer.  Acad.,  Supple- 
ment, May,  191 2,  pp.  9-22. 

McGrath,  T.  S.:  Timber  Bonds.  Craig- Wa>Tie  Company,  Chicago,  Illinois, 
1911. 

:  Timber  Bond  Features,  .\nnals  of  Amer.  Acad.,  Supple- 
ment, May,  191 2. 

Sackett,  H.  S.:  Timberland  Bonds  as  an  Investment.  American  Lumber- 
man, Chicago,  Illinois,  January  25,  1913,  pp.  33-35. 


PART  II 
PREPARING  LOGS  FOR  TRANSPORT 


CHAPTER  IV 
FOREST  LABOR 

The  successful  conduct  of  forest  operations  depends  in  a  large 
measure  on  the  character,  supply  and  efficiency  of  labor,  factors 
which  are  influenced  by  the  economic  conditions  of  the  country. 
In  prosperous  times  work  is  abundant  and  capable  men  are  not 
attracted  by  the  average  wage  paid  for  forest  work.  This  means 
a  restless  woods  force,  a  portion  of  which  constantly  shifts  from 
camp  to  camp.  Business  depression  is  quickly  felt  in  the  lumber 
industry  because  in  hard  times  railroad  companies  and  other 
large  consumers  of  forest  products  reduce  their  purchases  of 
lumber,  crossties  and  other  material.  The  dull  market  prompts 
the  lumberman  to  cut  down  expenses  and  one  of  the  first  steps 
taken  is  to  reduce  the  labor  charge  since  this  is  one  of  the  chief 
items  in  the  cost  of  lumber  production. 

The  agricultural  interests  of  different  regions  may  also  have 
a  decided  influence  on  labor  supply  during  certain  seasons. 
This  is  illustrated  in  the  cypress  region  of  Louisiana,  where 
sugar  production  is  an  important  industry  and  where  Creoles  and 
negroes  prefer  to  work  in  the  fields  and  sugar  mills  during  the 
cane-harvesting  season. 

LENGTH    OF    EMPLOYMENT 

The  length  of  time  forest  laborers  are  required  each  year  is 
governed  by  the  character  of  the  operation.  In  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  United  States,  in  some  parts  of  the  Lake  States  and 
in  the  Inland  Empire  there  is  a  demand  for  the  maximum  number 
of  laborers  only  from  eight  to  nine  months  of  the  year;  in  the 
southern  pine,  cypress  and  Pacific  Coast  forests,  where  rail- 
roading replaces  sled  haul  and  water  transport,  loggers  operate 
the  year  round. 

47 


48  LOGGING 

CHARACTER 

During  the  early  years  of  the  industry  the  woods  force  in  the 
North  and  East  was  recruited  from  the  native  agricultural 
element,  but  in  recent  years  it  has  been  replaced  by  French 
Canadians,  Finns,  Swedes,  Danes,  Poles  and  inhabitants  of 
southern  Europe.  French  Canadians  come  over  the  border 
during  the  fall  and  winter  months  to  secure  a  ''stake."  Many 
Swedes  and  Norwegians,  who  are  among  the  best  woods- workers 
from  Europe,  are  employed  in  the  Lake  States  and  on  the  Pacific 
Coast,  where  wages  are  high.  Finns  and  Poles  work  chiefly  in 
the  Lake  States.  The  American-born  employees  are  now  found 
in  the  more  responsible  positions. 

The  labor  in  the  Appalachians  consists  largely  of  natives, 
some  of  whom  combine  agriculture  with  logging  while  others 
follow  logging  as  their  sole  occupation. 

Whites  and  negroes  comprise  the  chief  forest  labor  of  the  South, 
although  Creoles  and  Mexicans  are  common  in  the  Louisiana 
cypress  swamps,  and  many  Mexicans  are  employed  in  Texas, 
especially  around  the  mills  and  on  railroad  construction  work. 
The  whites  are  often  agriculturists  who  work  at  logging  only  for 
a  portion  of  the  year,  while  the  negroes,  except  in  the  sugar 
country,  follow  the  industry  the  year  round  with  frequent  shifts 
from  one  camp  to  another.  Owing  chiefly  to  the  climate  the 
laborers  are,  on  the  whole,  less  energetic  than  those  in  northern 
regions.  The  color  line  is  drawn  on  logging  operations  and 
mixed  crews  are  not  the  rule.  Creoles  and  Mexicans  work  with 
colored  laborers,  although  Mexicans  are  inclined  to  be  clannish. 

METHODS    OF    EMPLOYMENT    AND    OF    PAYMENT 

The  chief  methods  of  employing  labor  are  (i)  by  the  day  or 
month;    (2)  by  contract. 

The  first  is  desirable  where  labor  is  efiicient.  Even  where  the 
bulk  of  the  work  is  done  by  contract,  a  small  force  should  be 
maintained  to  prevent  the  arbitrary  dictation  of  prices  by 
contractors. 

The   basis  of  employment  in   the  Northeast,   Lake   States, 


FOREST   LABOR  49 

Inland  Empire  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast  is  generally  by  the  day 
or  month,  with  or  without  a  charge  for  board.  Day  labor  pre- 
dominates on  the  Pacific  Coast,  while  in  the  other  sections  a 
monthly  wage  is  more  common.  When  employed  on  the  latter 
basis,  workmen  may  or  may  not  be  charged  with  lost  time  due 
to  bad  weather  or  to  sickness. 

Contract  labor  is  preferable  where  labor  is  inefficient  and 
liability  laws  are  unfavorable  to  the  employer.  This  method 
is  common  in  the  southern  yellow  pine,  cypress  and  the  Appa- 
lachian regions.  The  system  is  extended  in  some  regions  to 
cover  the  entire  field  of  mill-stocking,  although  it  is  usually 
applied  to  felling  and  log-making,  skidding,  hauling  and  railroad 
grade  construction.  The  last  is  almost  invariably  a  single  con- 
tract, but  the  others  may  be  handled  together.  For  instance, 
one  contractor  may  agree  to  deliver  the  logs  along  the  railroad. 

The  common  basis  of  payment  for  contract  logging  work  is 
by  the  thousand  feet,  log  scale.  When  this  method  is  not  used, 
felling  and  log-making  are  paid  for  by  the  log,  tree,  number  of 
saw-cuts  made  or  by  the  "task."  The  latter  is  really  on  a  day 
wage  basis,  because  the  workmen  receive  a  stated  sum  per  day, 
provided  they  cut  a  given  number  of  logs,  or  a  certain  number  of 
feet,  log  scale.  The  task  is  common  in  the  Carolinas  and  in  some 
portions  of  Arkansas. 

Some  lumbermen  furnish  the  contractors  with  tools  and 
supplies.  This  may  cover  only  felling  and  log-making,  or  it  may 
be  extended  to  include  the  skidding  and  hauling  equipment, 
either  power  or  animal,  and  the  railroad  or  other  means  used  in 
transporting  the  logs  to  the  mill.  Such  an  arrangement  materi- 
ally affects  the  contract  price. 

Small  contracts  are  usually  verbal  but  large  ones  are  generally 
in  writing.  About  10  per  cent  of  the  contract  price  is  usually 
withheld  until  the  work  is  satisfactorily  completed. 

Many  lumber  companies  operate  commissaries  or  general 
stores  in  connection  with  their  logging  and  miUing  work.  Since 
it  is  to  their  advantage  to  have  the  trade  of  their  employees,  cash 
is  paid  only  on  specified  pay  days.  Meanwhile,  employees  may 
obtain  metal  trading  checks  or  coupon  books  to  the  value  of  their 


50  LOGGING 

credit  which  are  accepted  at  face  value  at  the  company  store. 
This  tends  to  keep  the  trade  at  home,  especially  if  the  company 
discourages  the  redemption  of  their  checks  or  coupons  when 
presented  by  others  than  employees. 

Weekly,  semi-monthly,  or  monthly  pay  days  are  the  rule  in 
the  South.  A  practice  also  exists  among  some  operators  of 
deferring  payment  for  two  weeks  or  a  month  in  order  to  hold 
the  men. 

In  other  regions  loggers  do  not  have  regular  pay  days  but  the 
woodsmen  are  given  credit  at  the  camp  store  for  such  supplies 
as  they  need.  Final  settlement  is  made  by  check  or  by  order 
on  the  head  ofhce  or  some  store  or  bank  when  the  man  leaves 
the  employ  of  the  logger.  When  labor  is  scarce  special  induce- 
ments such  as  payment  on  demand  instead  of  at  some  fixed  date 
are  sometimes  offered  to  secure  workmen. 

FACTORS    WHICH    INFLUENCE    WAGES 

The  wage  paid  for  forest  work  depends  largely  on  the  following 
factors: 

(i)    The  amount  of  labor  available. 

(2)  The  degree  of  skill  required. 

(3)  The  condition  under  which  labor  is  performed.  Laborers 
prefer  to  work  near  settlements  and  may  demand  higher  wages 
on  remote  operations,  and  where  low  stumps,  brush  disposal  and 
other  restrictions  demand  the  exercise  of  greater  care  and  effort 
than  usual. 

(4)  The  perquisites  offered.  Labor  can  be  secured  more 
readily  and  at  a  lower  wage  where  hospital,  accident  insurance, 
school,  church  and  like  benefits  are  afforded. 

A  list  of  the  wages  paid  in  several  forest  regions  is  given  on 
pages  531  to  535,  inclusive,  in  the  Appendix. 

UNIONS 

Forest  employees  in  the  Northeast  and  Lake  States  have  no 
regular  form  of  labor  organization. 

In  the  Inland  Empire  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast  unions  exist 
which  have  state  organizations  supporting  a  staff  of  organizers 


FOREST   LABOR  5 1 

and  inspectors.  Boycotts  and  strikes  have  in  some  instances 
been  conducted  by  these  organizations  but  in  general  the  in- 
dustry has  been  free  from  disturbances  due  to  organized  labor. 
An  important  feature  of  some  of  these  unions  is  a  hospital 
benefit. 

During  the  years  1911-1912  sawmill  employees  and  woods- 
workers  in  Louisiana  and  Texas  attempted  to  organize  a  union 
known  as  the  "Brotherhood  of  Timber  Workers,"  in  affihation 
with  the  "Industrial  Workers  of  the  World."  The  movement 
promoted  by  inflammatory  leaders  grew  rapidly  and  during  the 
year  191 1  caused  several  of  the  largest  mills  in  these  states  to 
close  for  a  time.     The  organization  has  not  been  a  success. 

ORGANIZATION 

The  usual  division  of  responsibility  in  logging  operations  is 
shown  on  pages  52  and  53.  The  first  is  that  of  a  large  opera- 
tion in  the  yellow  pine  region  of  the  South;  the  second,  the 
form  common  in  the  North. 

workmen's  compensation  acts 

For  many  years  the  responsibihty  of  compensating  laborers 
injured  in  the  performance  of  their  work  was  regulated  by 
Employers'  Liability  Laws.  These  held  the  employer  liable  for 
accidents  vv^hich  occurred  by  reason  of  his  failure  to  conform  to 
the  laws.  Lawsuits  were  frequent  and  usually  proved  expensive 
to  all  concerned,  often  resulting  on  the  one  hand  in  a  denial  by 
the  courts  of  compensation  to  parties  to  whom  it  was  due,  and 
on  the  other  in  granting  heavy  damages  to  those  who  were  not 
entitled  to  them. 

The  employers  protected  their  interest  through  liabiHty 
insurance  companies  but  a  great  waste  of  money  resulted  since 
only  from  29  to  50  per  cent  of  the  premiums  paid  reached  the 
injured  employees  or  their  dependents  and  fully  40  per  cent  of 
this  was  expended  by  the  injured  party  for  attorneys'  fees. 

Compensation  through  liability  laws  has  tended  to  create  an 
antagonistic  feeling  between  employer  and  employee  and  for 


52 


LOGGING 


ORGANIZATION  OF  A   SOUTHERN   RAILROAD   OPERATION 


General 
Manager. 


Location  engineer 
(main  line  rail- 
road). 


Woods  foreman. 


Train  master. 


Assistant  manager.  - 


Land  agent. 
Log  scaler. 

Chief  clerk. 


Storekeepers. 


Grading 
contractors. 


Team  boss.  < 

Felling  contractor. 
Camp  blacksmith. 
Barn  man. 

Grading  boss  (spurs). 
Loader  foreman  and 

engineer. 
Steel  crew  foreman. 
Train  conductors. 
Section  boss. 
Shop  foreman  (mill). 

Sawmill  foreman. 


Yard  foreman. 


Dry  kiln  and  dry 
shed  foreman. 


Supply  clerk. 
Head  carpenter. 

Shipping  clerk.  \ 

Planing     mill    fore- 
man. 

Cruisers. 

Office  force. 
Mill  watchmen. 

Assistant  storekeep- 
ers. 
Clerks. 


Laborers. 


Teamsters. 
Swampers. 
Woods  sawyers. 


Laborers. 
Loader  crew. 

Steel  crew. 
Train  crews. 
Section  crews. 
Shop  crew. 

Sawmill  crew. 
Graders    (green 

lumber). 
Sorters. 
Teamsters. 
Pilers. 

Kiln  truck  load- 
ers and  un- 
loaders. 

Graders  (dry 
lumber). 

Assorters. 


Carpenter  crew. 
Truckers  to 

planer. 
Loaders. 
Planing  mill 

crew. 


FOREST   LABOR 
ORGANIZATION  IN  THE  NORTHERN  WOODS 


S3 


Scaler  and  clerk. 

f 

Saw  boss. 

Sawyers. 

Saw  filers. 

Road  foreman. 

. 

Toters. 

Cook. 

Flunkies. 

Woods  foreman.     - 

General 
Manager. 

Skidding  foreman,    i 
Road  repair  crew. 

Teamsters. 
Swampers. 
Skidwaymen. 
Bam  man. 

Landing  boss. 

Landing  crew. 

Drive  foreman. 

Log    drivers     (small 
streams). 

many  years  this  method  of  settlement  has  been  regarded  as 
unsatisfactory. 

Tn  recent  years  several  states^  have  abolished  the  liability  laws 
and  have  passed  Workmen's  Compensation  Acts  which  provide, 
without  trial  by  court  or  jury,  for  the  payment  of  specified  sums 
for  injuries  received.  The  injured  workman  secures  a  definite 
compensation  without  any  legal  expense  and  without  regard  to 
the  cause  of  the  accident,  provided  it  was  not  self-inflicted. 
The  employer  must  waive  all  rights  to  the  common  law  defences 
of  "contributory  negligence,"  "assumption  of  risk"  and  the 
"fellow  servant  rule,"  which  were  prominent  features  in  litiga- 
tion under  the  Hability  laws. 

One  of  the  most  satisfactory  Workmen's  Compensation  Acts, 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  lumber  operator,  is  now  in  force  in 
the  state  of  Washington,  having  gone  into  effect  in  October,  191 1 . 
This  law  provides  for  an  Industrial  Insurance  Commission  to 
administer  the  law  and  for  the  pa>Tnent,  by  the  State,  of  all 
expenses  of  administration  of  the  Act,  placing  the  burden  of 
compensation  on  the  employer. 

Among  the  features  of  this  law  are  the  following: 

(i)  When  engaged  in  hazardous  occupations  the  provisions 
of  the  Act  are  obligatory  on  both  the  employer  and  employee, 

^  Among  these  are  California,  Washington,  Wisconsin.  New  Jersey,  Illinois, 
New  Hampshire  and  Kansas. 


54  LOGGING 

and  it  is  optional  with  others.  Those  who  come  under  the 
provisions  of  the  law  waive  all  rights  to  the  common  law  de- 
fences, and  the  employee  must  accept  the  awards  of  the  Com- 
mission, in  lieu  of  his  right  to  sue  at  common  law. 

(2)  Any  employer,  workman  or  beneficiary  has  the  right  of 
appeal  to  the  Superior  Court  in  the  County  of  his  residence, 
when  the  award  is  not  satisfactory.  If  the  Court  deems  the 
award  unjust,  the  Commission  must  pay  the  plaintiff's  costs  and 
attorneys'  fees  out  of  the  administration  fund. 

(3)  The  awards  are  made  from  a  fund  contributed  by  the 
employers,  who  pay  a  certain  percentage^  of  their  payroll  to  the 
Commission. 

(4)  The  various  industries  and  parts  of  industries  are  grouped 
separately  according  to  the  degree  of  hazard,  and  each  class  has 
a  fund  of  its  own  from  which  awards  are  made  for  such  accidents 
as  arise  to  its  employees.  In  case  of  the  depletion  of  the  fund, 
provisions  are  made  for  special  assessments  to  cover  the  deficit. 
Although  the  fund  is  not  intended  to  be  cumulative,  there  is 
no  provision  for  a  reduction  of  the  assessment  fixed  by  law. 

(5)  It  is  unlawful  for  the  employer  to  deduct  from  the  wages 
of  the  employee  any  portion  of  the  premium  paid  into  the  acci- 
dent fund. 

(6)  All  forms  of  injury  are  classified  and  a  standard  schedule 
of  awards  is  fixed  for  each. 

(7)  In  case  of  the  death  of  an  employee  a  pension  is  granted 
to  the  widow  during  her  unmarried  life,  including  an  allowance 
for  each  child  under  sixteen  years  of  age,  up  to  a  maximum  of 
three  children.  Orphans  receive  an  allowance  twice  that  granted 
to  children  who  have  a  parent  living.  Provision  is  also  made  for 
dependents  when  the  deceased  has  no  immediate  relatives. 

(8)  Pensions  are  met  by  setting  aside  a  specified  sum,  based 
on  mortality  tables,  which  is  deposited  with  the  State  Treasurer, 
and  from  which  the  payments  are  made  when  due. 

(9)  If  a  workman  deliberately  injures  himself,  or  causes  his 
own  death,  no  award  can  be  made  from  the  accident  fund.     On 

1  The  rates  for  the  lumber  industry  are  as  follows:  logging  railroads  5  per  cent; 
logging  operations,  sawmills  and  lumber  yards,  2.5  per  cent. 


FOREST   LABOR  55 

the  other  hand,  if  the  employer  brings  about  such  injury  or  death 
through  neghgence,  the  widow,  children  or  dependents  come 
within  the  provisions  of  the  Act,  and  further  have  cause  for 
action  against  the  employer  for  any  damages  in  excess  of  those 
awarded  by  the  Commission. 

(10)  Provisions  are  made  for  penaKzing  an  employer  who  fails 
to  observe  the  safeguards  required  by  law.  He  must  not  only 
pay  the  regular  percentage  on  his  pa3nroll  but,  in  addition,  50 
per  cent  of  the  award  granted  to  the  injured  party.  If  the  work- 
man removes,  or  allows  to  be  removed,  any  safeguard  and  he  is 
injured  thereby,  the  award  is  reduced  10  per  cent. 

(11)  Employers  are  required  to  report  all  accidents  to  the 
Commission,  and  their  books  must  be  open  to  inspection  by  the 
traveling  auditors  of  the  Commission. 

(12)  AppHcation  for  relief  under  this  Act  must  be  made 
within  one  year  from  the  date  of  the  accident. 

The  adoption  of  this  Act  has  led  to  the  abandonment  of 
liability  insurance  by  lumbermen  in  Washington,  and  many 
operators  beheve  that  ultimately  it  will  prove  to  be  a  cheaper 
form  of  settlement  for  accidents  than  has  previously  been  avail- 
able, as  well  as  promoting  a  better  feeHng  between  employer 
and  employee. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    NOTE    TO    CHAPTER    IV 

First  Annual  Report  of  the  Industrial  Insurance  Department,  State  of  Wash- 
ington, for  the  twelve  months  ending  September  30,  1912.  Olympia, 
Washington. 

Pratt,  C.  S.:  Washington  Workmen's  Compensation  Act  is  Successful  in  its 
Operation.     The  Timbermen,  Portland,  Oregon,  August,  1912,  pp.  74-77. 


CHAPTER  V 

CAMPS 

In  early  times  camps  were  crude  structures  having  few,  if  any, 
conveniences  and  the  men  were  given  very  plain  fare  but  a 
logger  can  no  longer  crowd  a  large  number  of  men  into  a  small 
building,  and  feed  them  on  plain,  poorly-cooked  food,  for  the 
increase  in  the  demand  for  labor  in  the  woods  and  the  constantly 
growing  scarcity  of  competent  help  have  forced  loggers  to  make 
their  camps  more  comfortable  and  to  furnish  a  bill  of  fare  that 
compares  favorably  with  many  hotels. 

CAMP    LOCATION 

The  requirements  for  a  camp  site  for  snow  logging  may  be 
summarized  as  follows: 

(i)  A  central  location  with  reference  to  a  large  tract.  It  is 
not  considered  profitable  to  walk  men  more  than  i^  miles  from 
camp  to  work,  or  from  one  watershed  to  another,  because  they 
consume  too  much  time  and  energy.  It  is  cheaper  to  construct 
new  camps  if  there  is  a  large  amount  of  timber,  or  a  secondary 
one  if  the  quantity  is  small.  The  camp  should  be  located  so  that 
the  main  haul  or  two-sled  road  will  run  through  the  camp  lot  on 
its  way  to  the  landing.  Teamsters  then  lose  no  time  in  getting 
to  work  in  the  morning,  returning  to  feed  animals,  and  getting 
them  to  stable  at  night  after  a  hard  day's  work.  During  the 
hauHng  season  time  is  an  important  factor,  and  where  long  hours 
are  observed  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  husband  the 
strength  of  animals  and  men. 

(2)  A  level,  well-drained  camp  site  from  one  to  two  acres  in 
extent  which  is  free  from  large  boulders  that  would  be  a  hin- 
drance to  the  location  of  buildings. 

(3)  A  stream  of  pure  running  water  near  at  hand  for  drinking, 
cooking,  laundry  purposes  and  stock  watering,  and  so  located 
that  it  will  not  be  contaminated  by  the  camp. 

56 


CAMPS  57 

(4)  Accessibility  to  the  source  of  supplies  is  an  important 
factor,  although  secondary  to  proper  location  with  reference  to 
the  timber  and  main  haul. 

The  requirements  for  a  camp  site  for  a  railroad  operation  may 
be  summarized  as  follows: 

(i)  A  well-drained  site,  with  no  swamps  or  other  mosquito- 
breeding  spots  in  the  vicinity,  because  railroad  camps  are 
operated  during  the  warm  season  when  there  is  the  greatest 
danger  from  malaria. 

(2)  Location  with  reference  to  a  natural  supply  of  pure  water 
is  secondary  to  good  drainage  since  drinking  water  is  either 
hauled  to  the  camp  in  tank  cars  or  can  be  obtained  by  driving 
wells  at  the  camp  site.  It  is  desirable,  however,  to  have  a  run- 
ning stream  in  the  vicinity  from  which  water  for  the  stock  and 
for  laundry  purposes  may  be  secured. 

(3)  AccessibiUty  to  the  operation  is  essential  unless  the  men 
can  be  transported  to  and  from  their  labor  by  train. 

(4)  A  sufficient  area  of  level  ground  to  permit  the  construc- 
tion of  the  spur  tracks  required  for  moving  the  houses  and  also 
set-out  switches  for  log  cars. 

Floating  camps  are  placed  in  bayous  and  canals  in  proximity 
to  the  operation.  Pure  drinking  water  cannot  be  secured  from 
these  streams  and  provision  must  be  made  for  a  boiled  or  dis- 
tilled supply. 

TYPES    OF   CAMPS 

Log  Camps. — Typical  buildings  are  usually  one  story  high 
and  are  constructed  crib-fashion  of  logs,  preferably  of  conifers 
with  the  slightest  taper  obtainable.  These  are  notched  at  the 
corners  to  hold  them  together  and  to  reduce  the  chink  space 
which  is  filled  with  moss  and  clay,  or  mortar.  The  floors  in 
the  living  rooms  are  made  of  hewn  timber  or  rough  lumber, 
and  the  roofs  are  covered  with  "shakes"  or  prepared  roofing. 
The  doors  are  made  from  rough  boards,  and  a  few  windows 
furnish  Hght  and  aid  in  ventilation.  Occasionally  a  framework 
on  which  logs  are  fastened  upright  is  substituted  for  the  crib- 
work. 


58  LOGGING 

Log  camps  in  the  North  generally  comprise  the  following 
buildings: 

(i)  An  ofhce  and  store,  sometimes  called  a  "van,"  which  is 
the  headquarters  and  the  sleeping  place  of  the  foreman,  camp 
clerk  and  log  scaler.  The  equipment  of  the  room  consists  of 
single  bunks  for  the  men,  a  few  shelves  on  which  goods  are  dis- 
played, and  a  rough  counter  over  which  they  are  sold,  two  or 
three  homemade  chairs,  and  a  box  stove.  The  store  carries 
necessaries  required  by  the  woodsmen,  such  as  shoes,  clothing, 
tobacco  and  a  few  drugs.  Occasionally  the  ofhce  is  in  one  of 
the  main  buildings. 

(2)  A  cook  shanty  housing  the  kitchen  and  dining  depart- 
ment. The  former  is  usually  placed  in  one  end  of  the  building, 
and  the  remaining  space  is  devoted  to  long  board  dining  tables 
running  lengthwise  or  crosswise  of  the  building.  Benches  are 
provided  for  seats.  A  small  sleeping  room  is  partitioned  off  for 
the  cook. 

(3)  A  bunk  house  providing  lounging  and  sleeping  quarters 
for  the  men.  Double  bunks  two  stories  high  are  built  along  the 
side  wall  and  often  across  the  ends  of  the  building.  Each  bunk 
accommodates  two  men.  Straw  or  hay  is  supplied  in  lieu  of 
mattresses.     Blankets  may  or  may  not  be  supplied  by  the  camp. 

The  furniture  consists  of  long  wooden  benches,  called  "deacon 
seats,"  ranged  alongside  of  the  bunks.  A  large  sink  for  washing, 
one  or  two  heating  stoves,  and  a  grindstone  are  also  part  of  the 
equipment.  Wires  for  drying  clothing  are  suspended  over  the 
stove. 

Ventilation  is  often  secured  by  placing  a  barrel  in  a  hole  in 
the  roof  and  fitting  it  with  a  hinged  head  that  may  be  opened 
and  closed;  if  this  is  not  used,  some  other  crude  arrangement 
is  adopted. 

Cook  shanties  and  bunk  houses  are  generally  separate  build- 
ings, although  in  the  Northeast  they  are  often  only  from  6  to  10 
feet  apart,  and  the  gap  is  covered  with  a  roof,  boarded  up  in  the 
rear  and  used  as  a  storage  place,  called  a  "dingle." 

Two-storied  camps,  having  the  kitchen  and  dining-room  on 
the  lower  floor  and  the  sleeping  quarters  on  the  second  floor, 


CAMPS 


59 


are  sometimes  used  in  the  Adirondack  mountains,  although  the 
general  practice  is  to  use  one-storied  buildings. 

(4)  Stables  or  hovels  —  rough  buildings  with  a  good  roof  and 
fairly  tight  sides  —  are  constructed  to  afford  proper  protection  to 
animals.  They  are  equipped  with  stalls,  feed  boxes,  harness 
racks  and  grain  bins.  Each  animal  is  usually  allowed  a  stall 
space  of  5  by  10  feet.  When  a  large  number  are  kept  in  one 
camp,  the  stalls  are  arranged  on  opposite  sides  of  the  building 


Fig.  7.  —  Typical  Logging  Camp  of  the  Northeast,  showing  the  cook  shanty  in  the 
foreground,  the  bunk  house,  the  blacksmith  shop,  and  the  stable  at  the  extreme 
right.     Maine. 

with  an  alleyway  in  the  middle  in  which  grain  and  hay  are 
stored.  A  6-foot  runway  is  left  behind  the  animals  to  facilitate 
cleaning  the  barn  and  to  afford  a  passage  for  the  animals  to  and 
from  their  stalls.  The  barn  equipment,  including  harness,  costs 
about  $55  per  team. 

(5)  A  storehouse,  where  large  quantities  of  supplies  are  kept. 
This  may  be  a  detached  building  or  a  room  in  the  cook  shanty 
set  aside  for  this  purpose. 


6o 


LOGGING 


(6)  A  Storage  or  root  cellar  which  is  an  underground  place 
where  vegetables  are  kept.  It  must  be  frost-proof  and  yet  cool 
enough  to  prevent  the  produce  from  spoiling. 

(7)  A  blacksmith  shop  where  horses  are  shod,  sleds  and  other 
equipment  made  and  repaired,  and  similar  work  done.  If  a  va- 
riety of  work  is  performed  there  must  be  a  fairly  complete  set 
of  iron-working  and  wood-working  tools. 


Photograph  by  E.  DeForesi. 

Fig.  8.  —  A  Two-storied  Logging  Camp.  The  dining-room,  lounging  room,  and 
office  are  on  the  ground  floor,  and  the  sleeping  quarters  are  on  the  second 
floor.     Northern  New  York. 


The  following  list  comprises  the  chief  tools  required  in  a  first- 
class  camp  shop: 


I  forge,  complete,  including  bellows 
I  anvil 

3  augers,  ij-,  2-  and  3-inch 

I  thread  cutter  and  an  assortment  of  dies 

4  hammers 
I  vise 

1  broadax 

2  rasps 

I  coal  shovel 


12  tongs,  assorted 

I  brace  and  an  assortment  of  bits 

I   drill   machine   and   an   assortment  of 

driUs 
I  bolt  clipper 

1  striking  hammer 

2  monkey  wrenches 

2  two-inch  iron  squares 
I  set  of  horse-shoeing  tools 
I  iron  heating  stove 


CAMPS  6 1 

A  general  assortment  of  cold  chisels,  drawing  knives,  pinchers 
and  an  assortment  of  files. 

(8)  Sled  storehouses  to  shelter  sleds  and  other  equipment 
during  the  summer  months. 

An  average  crew  for  the  northern  woods  is  about  sixty  men,  and 
in  addition  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  horses.  A  camp  to 
accommodate  a  crew  of  sixty  men  and  thirty  horses  would  be 
composed  of  buildings  of  the  following  approximate  sizes: 

Office  and  store i6  by  20  feet 

Cook  shanty 35  by  37  feet 

Bunk  house 35  by  37  feet 

Stables  (2) 40  by  40  feet 

Storehouse 16  by  16  feet 

Blacksmith  shop 27  by  27  feet 

Storage  cellar ".  . .  .  8  by  1 2  feet 

Sled  storehouse 10  by  15  feet 

A  camp  of  this  size  was  built  in  Maine  with  a  total  expenditure 
of  300  days'  labor  and  twenty  days'  teamhire  at  a  cost  of 
approximately  $600.  Three  and  one-half  million  feet  of  timber 
were  logged  annually  from  this  camp  for  three  years,  so  that  the 
cost  of  camp  construction  was  about  6  cents  per  thousand  feet 
log  scale.  On  some  operations  this  charge  may  run  as  high  as 
10  cents  per  thousand  feet. 

In  some  parts  of  the  North  especially  where  logging  railroads 
are  used,  log  buildings  have  been  replaced  by  board  camps  cov- 
ered with  tar  paper.  Buildings  of  this  character  are  torn  down 
when  a  camp  site  is  abandoned  and  the  lumber  is  used  for  build- 
ings on  a  new  site. 

Portable-house  Camps.  —  The  buildings  in  these  camps  are 
used  indefinitely  and  are  moved  from  place  to  place  as  logging 
progresses  being  placed  on  skids  along  either  side  of  the  main 
line  or  of  a  spur  of  the  logging  railroad.  Two  or  three  of  them 
grouped  together  may  form  a  dwelling  for  a  family,  or  singly 
they  may  be  fitted  up  as  bunk  houses  to  shelter  two  or  more  men. 
Large  camps  in  the  South  may  consist  of  200  or  more  houses 
and  shelter  from  200  to  300  persons,  of  whom  only  from  30  to  50 
per  cent  may  be  men  in  the  employ  of  the  logging  company. 


62 


LOGGING 


Camps  of  this  character  constitute  small  villages  with  a  school 
and  church  for  the  benefit  of  the  loggers  and  their  famihes. 
Other  buildings  include  quarters  for  the  superintendent,  some- 
times a  boarding-house  for  single  men,  barns  for  the  stock,  a 
machine  shop,  storage  houses,  coal  supply  bins  for  the  locomo- 
tives and  a  commissary  or  store.  The  latter  is  an  important 
feature  in  isolated  camps  for  not  only  the  families  in  camp  but 
also  many  of  the  local  inhabitants  secure  their  supplies  from  this 
source.  Stores  of  this  character  often  carry  a  large  stock  of 
goods  and  sell  monthly  several  thousand  dollars'  worth  of  mer- 
chandise, groceries  and  feed. 


Fig.  9.  —  A  Portable-house  Logging  Camp.     The  large  building  in  the  rear  is  the 
commissary  or  general  store.     Arkansas. 

When  families  do  not  live  in  camps  the  number  of  buildings 
is  limited  and  may  include,  besides  the  bunk  houses,  an  office 
and  a  cook  shanty.  The  latter  because  of  its  large  size  frequently 
is  not  portable.  A  small  "van"  is  maintained  from  which  the 
men  can  secure  such  necessities  as  they  require.  Camps  of  this 
character  are  found  in  the  Northwest. 

Portable  houses  must  be  of  a  size  that  can  be  loaded  readily 
and  transported  on  log  cars.  Strength  in  construction  is  an 
important  factor,  because  of  the  frequent  handHng  to  which 
they  are  subjected. 


CAMPS  63 

The  buildings  vary  in  size  and  in  mode  of  construction.  In  the 
South  they  are  12  by  14  feet  or  10  by  20  feet,  with  a  door  at  each 
end  and  a  window  in  each  side.  The  framework  on  which  the 
floor  joists  rest  is  made  of  heavy  timbers,  and  the  side  bracing, 
floor  joists  and  rafters  of  2-  by  4-inch  material.  The  siding  may 
be  4-inch  dressed  and  matched  material,  and  the  interiors  of  the 
better  houses  are  ceiled  with  f-inch  ceihng.  A  cheap  grade  of 
flooring  is  used.  The  roof  is  covered  with  sheet  iron  or  some 
patent  roofing  material. 

A  house  of  this  character  10  by  20  feet  in  size  requires  ap- 
proximately 2200  feet  of  lumber,  230  square  feet  of  roofing,  4 
window  sashes,  4  pairs  of  hinges,  2  doors  and  2  door  knobs.  It 
can  be  built  at  a  cost  of  from  $45  to  $60  each,  including  the 
value  of  material  and  labor,  and  if  kept  in  good  repair  and 
painted  at  intervals  will  last  for  many  years. 

Portable  houses  are  loaded  on  log  cars  either  by  animals  or 
log  loaders. 

In  loading  a  house  with  the  aid  of  animals,  the  log  cars  are 
"spotted"  on  the  railroad  track  opposite  the  house  to  be  loaded 
and  skids  are  placed  from  the  house  to  the  car.  One  end  of  a 
cable  is  attached  to  the  house,  the  other  end  being  passed  over 
the  car  through  a  block  and  fall  fastened  to  a  tree  or  stump  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  track.  A  team  is  attached  to  the  free 
end  of  the  cable  and  the  house  is  dragged  slowly  up  the  skids 
and  on  to  the  car  bunks. 

A  house  can  be  handled  most  expeditiously  with  loaders,  in 
which  case  there  must  be  a  heay>'  6-inch  by  12-inch  timber 
running  lengthwise  or  crosswise  under  the  center  of  the  building. 
An  iron  rod,  if  inches  in  diameter,  having  a  large  eye  at  one  end 
and  a  screw  thread  at  the  other,  is  run  through  the  center  of  the 
house  from  the  peak  of  the  roof  down  through  the  heavy  floor 
beam  and  made  fast  with  a  nut.  An  empty  log  car  and  the  log 
loader  having  been  placed  on  the  track  opposite  the  house,  the 
loader  cable  is  fastened  to  the  eye  of  the  rod,  and  the  whole 
structure  is  raised  clear  of  the  foundation,  then  swung  around  in 
position  and  gently  lowered  on  to  the  car.  It  is  unloaded  by 
a  reversal  of  the  process.     In  some  cases  the  rods  are  fixed  per- 


64  LOGGING 

manently  to  two  corners  of  the  house,  diagonally  opposite,  and 
a  bridle  on  the  loading  cable  is  fastened  to  them  when  the  house 
is  to  be  moved.  The  movement  of  the  house  does  not  necessi- 
tate the  removal  of  the  household  effects. 

Barns  for  animals  at  portable  logging  camps  may  be  either 
semi-permanent  board  structures,  tents  or  specially  constructed 
cars. 

Board  barns  are  advantageous  in  a  region  where  the  winter 
weather  is  severe  since  they  can  be  made  tight  and  afford  ample 
shelter  and  comfort  for  the  animals.  They  are  built  of  cheap 
lumber  with  a  board  roof  battened  or  covered  with  prepared 
roofing.  Such  structures  are  expensive  when  camp  is  moved 
frequently,  because  some  lumber  is  destroyed  each  time  the 
building  is  torn  down,  and  the  cost  of  erection  is  considerable. 
A  barn  of  this  character  for  the  accommodation  of  from  thirty- 
five  to  forty  horses  costs  from  $150  to  $175. 

A  form  of  tent  barn  32  feet  wide  with  14-foot  center  poles  and 
7-foot  side  poles  is  recommended  by  some  loggers  for  temporary 
camps.  Double  stalls  are  made  10  by  10  feet  with  6-foot  alleys 
at  the  rear.  A  barn  of  this  character  made  from  12-ounce  duck 
can  be  built  for  approximately  $1.25  per  hnear  foot  of  barn 
length. 

Car  barns  are  employed  in  some  parts  of  the  South  and  are 
considered  very  desirable  by  those  who  use  them.  A  tyj^e  of 
car  barn  used  in  Arkansas  consists  of  a  flat  car  io|  feet  by  40 
feet  in  size,  with  standard  freight  trucks  on  which  is  built  a 
superstructure  9  feet  from  the  floor  to  the  eaves,  with  a  gradually 
sloping  peaked  roof  covered  with  tar  paper.  A  passageway  6| 
feet  wide  runs  through  the  center  of  the  car  which  provides  a 
place  for  the  storage  of  hay  and  grain,  and  on  each  side  of  it 
feed  and  hay  boxes  are  arranged.  A  drop  roof,  supported  on 
3-inch  by  6-inch  by  8-foot  scantling,  covers  stall  space  10  feet 
wide  beyond  which  is  an  extension  roof  covering  an  alley.  Four 
double  stalls  are  arranged  on  each  side  of  the  car  separated  by 
board  partitions  wired  to  supports  on  the  car  and  under  the 
outer  edge  of  the  drop  roof.  The  stable  floor  is  filled  in  with 
earth  to  give  drainage.     No  protection  other  than  the  short 


CAMPS 


65 


extension  roof  is  provided  at  the  rear.  The  car  is  left  on  a 
temporary  track  and  in  one  hour  can  be  dismantled  ready  to 
move. 


End  View. 


Side  View. 
Fig.  10.  —  An  End  and  Side  View  of  the  Frame  of  a  Car  Bam. 

A  car  of  this  character  is  serviceable  where  frequent  changes 
of  site  are  necessary.  It  is  not  suitable  for  a  region  in  which 
the  weather  is  severe  during  the  winter  months,  although  with 


66  LOGGING 

a  little  additional  labor  it  would  be  possible  to  enclose  it  on  the 
sides  and  ends.     A  car  barn  can  be  built  for  $400. 

Corrals  for  idle  animals  are  enclosed  with  panels  live  boards 
high  and  16  feet  long  which  are  wired  to  posts  set  at  proper 
intervals.  The  only  labor  required  in  moving  to  a  new  site  is 
to  cut  the  wire  and  load  the  panels  on  flat  cars. 

Car  Camps.  —  Logging  camps  sometimes  consist  of  a  number 
of  box  cars  fitted  up  for  sleeping  quarters,  kitchen  and  dining- 
room,  and  ofhce  and  commissary.  They  are  moved  from  site  to 
site  as  the  work  progresses  and  placed  on  a  siding  at  each  camp. 
The  entire  camp  can  be  moved  in  a  very  short  time,  the  men  are 
always  near  their  work,  and  it  is  claimed  that  car  camps  are  more 
sanitary  than  frame  ones  because  of  their  height  above  ground. 
Because  of  the  increased  investment  these  camps  are  not  desir- 
able where  families  must  be  housed. 

In  an  Oregon  camp  the  units  are  built  on  34-foot  flat  cars  and 
each  consists  of  a  superstructure  46  feet  long,  14  feet  wide  and 
8^  feet  high  from  floor  to  eaves.  Ten  cars  provide  accommoda- 
tions for  eighty  men,  five  cars  being  used  for  bunk  houses,  and 
one  each  for  kitchen,  store  room,  dining  hall,  headquarters  and 
commissary,  and  power  and  baths. 

Each  bunk  car  accommodates  sixteen  men  and  is  fitted  up 
with  two-storied  single  bunks  provided  with  springs  and  mat- 
tresses. The  cars  are  steam-heated,  electric-lighted  and  afford 
comfortable  quarters  for  the  men, 

A  unique  departure  is  the  power  and  bath  car  which  is  fitted 
up  with  a  tub  and  four  shower  baths.  These  are  available  for 
the  use  of  the  men  under  suitable  regulations.  A  power  plant 
placed  in  this  car  furnishes  light  for  the  camp  and  a  boiler 
furnishes  steam  heat  for  the  buildings. 

The  office,  commissary,  and  foreman's  and  storekeeper's 
quarters  are  placed  in  a  single  car,  while  a  storage  car  holds 
supplies  for  the  commissary  and  package  goods  for  the  kitchen. 

Running  water  is  provided  for  the  camp  whenever  a  gravity 
supply  is  available. 

Floating  Camps.  —  The  camps  used  in  the  cj^ress  region  on 
pullboat  operations  are  built  on  scows,  and  are  usually  two- 


CAMPS 


67 


storied  buildings  in  which  the  entire  camp  is  fed  and  housed.  A 
portion  or  all  of  the  lower  floor  may  be  devoted  to  the  kitchen, 
dining-room  and  foreman's  quarters,  while  the  upper  floor  is 
used  to  house  the  men  and  is  generally  divided  into  two  sec- 
tions to  accommodate  white  and  colored  laborers. 

A  store  building  is  moored  so  close  to  the  main  camp  that 
the  two  can  be  connected  by  a  gangplank. 


Fig.  II.  —  A  Floating  Camp  on  a  Cypress  Operation.  The  dining-room  and 
office  are  on  the  ground  floor  and  the  sleeping  quarters  are  in  the  second  story. 
The  building  on  the  left  is  the  commissary.     Louisiana. 

Floating  camps  are  tied  up  along  the  banks  of  bayous  or  of 
canals  near  the  logging  operation,  and  the  men  go  to  and  from 
work  in  dug-out  canoes  called  "pirogues"  which  are  propelled 
with  paddles. 

BOARDING  DEPARTMENT 

A  well-conducted  boarding  department  is  an  essential  in  every 
successful  camp  where  the  logger  must  furnish  subsistence  to 
his  workmen. 


68 


LOGGING 


The  more  progressive  loggers  secure  the  best  cooks  obtainable 
to  take  charge  of  their  boarding  department,  since  the  season's 
success  usually  depends  on  a  constant  supply  of  labor  which 
cannot  be  retained  unless  good  wholesome  food  is  provided. 

The  kitchen  force  in  a  camp  is  in  charge  of  a  head  cook,  who 
controls  the  conduct  of  the  kitchen  and  dining-room.  An 
eflS.cient  man  whom  the  company  desires  to  retain  is  furnished 
any  supphes  he  requests.  A  competent  cook  can  prepare  food 
for  from  80  to  100  men,  but  for  a  greater  number  there  should  be 
an  assistant.  The  cook  has  helpers  called  flunkies  or  cookees, 
who  wait  on  table,  peel  potatoes,  wash  dishes  and  perform  any 
odd  jobs  around  the  kitchen.  One  flunky  to  every  twenty-flve 
men  is  the  general  rule. 

In  addition  every  camp  has  a  chore  boy  who  cleans  up  the 
men's  quarters,  cuts  firewood,  builds  fires  and  carries  water  for 
the  men's  camp,  and  sometimes  cleans  the  stables. 

Since  it  is  customary  to  feed  the  entire  crew  at  one  time  a 
camp  requires  a  large  amount  of  dining-room  ware.  Kitchen 
utensils  may  be  of  iron,  tin  or  granite  ware.  Dining  plates, 
cups  and  serving  vessels  are  preferably  of  heavy  granite  ware, 
although  some  companies  use  heavy  china  plates.  The  cutlery 
is  of  steel  with  plain  wooden  handles. 

The  following  list  shows  the  equipment  used  in  a  northern 
camp  where  sixty  men  were  fed: 


I  six-hole  cooking  range 
4  bean  pots 
13  bread  pans 
4  butcher  knives 

1  chopping  bowl 
4  "dutch"  ovens 

80  half-pint  cups 

74  forks 

74  knives 

24  ladles 

10  molasses  jugs 

10  mixing  spoons 

2  mixing  pans 


5  ten-quart  pans 
24  pepper  and  salt  shakers 
74  spoons 

3  sieves 

3  wash  boilers 

9  lunch  buckets 

2  bake  pans 

4  beef  boilers 
7  baking  pans 
7  coffee  boilers 

I  chopping  knife 

3  long-handled  dippers 


3  frying  pans 
7  iron  kettles 

1  porcelain  kettle 

2  meat  grinders 

1  nutmeg  grater 
12  three-quart  pans 
10  two-quart  pans 
18  pails 

86  plates 

2  skimmers 
16  wash  basins 

I  washboard 


The  total  value  of  the  above  camp  equipment  is  from  $200  to 

$225. 


CAMPS 


69 


Rations.  —  The  quantities  of  different  foodstuffs  that  enter 
into  two  rations  are  as  follows: 


100  ratxons. 


Fresh  meat 

Cured  meat 

Lard 

Flour 

Corn  meal 

Baking  powder 

Sugar 

Coffee 

Tea,  chocolate  or  cocoa 

Butter 

Oleomargarine 

Dried  fruits 

Rice  or  beans 

Potatoes  or  other  fresh  vegetables 

Salt 

Peas 

Molasses 

Pickles 

Vinegar 

Milk,  condensed 

Canned  vegetables  or  fruit 

Spices 

Flavoring  extracts 

Pepper  or  mustard 


Pounds 

Poimds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Gallons 

Quarts 

Quarts 

Cans 

Cans 

Ounces 

Ounces 

Ounces 


36 


•85 


(i)  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 


(2)  Maine  logging  camp. 


The  cost  of  feeding  men  in  logging  camps  usually  ranges  from 
45  to  65  cents  per  day. 

Commissary  supplies  and  animal  feed  are  usually  hauled  into 
northern  camps  during  the  late  fall  and  early  winter  on  tote  sleds. 
Where  good  roads  are  available,  supplies  are  occasionally 
wagoned  in  during  the  summer.  A  two-horse  team  will  haul 
about  1500  pounds  of  suppUes  daily  for  a  distance  of  twenty 
miles  on  a  sled,  while  a  team  of  four  horses  will  seldom  haul 
more  than  1000  pounds  on  a  wagon.  The  toting  charge  ranges 
from  15  to  60  cents  per  100  pounds.  SuppHes  for  railroad  camps 
are  brought  in  as  needed. 


70  LOGGING 

CAMP   HYGIENE 

Many  camps  have  no  system  of  medical  supervision  and  are 
far  removed  from  hospitals  or  other  facilities  of  this  character; 
therefore,  it  is  essential  that  the  logger  take  every  possible  pre- 
caution to  prevent  disease  on  account  of  the  danger  of  epidemics 
which  may  depopulate  the  camp  either  through  sickness  or  the 
general  exodus  of  workmen  fearful  of  a  disease.  The  greatest 
care  must  be  exercised  during  the  warm  months  when  bowel 
troubles  are  prevalent,  a  frequent  cause  of  which  is  poorly  cooked 
or  tainted  food.  Such  diseases  may  largely  be  guarded  against 
by  supplying  pure  drinking  water,  by  burning  or  burying  all 
kitchen  and  stable  refuse,  and  by  providing  tight  latrines,  so  that 
flies  cannot  infect  the  food  supply.  It  is  imperative  that  all  meat 
and  other  supplies  be  kept  in  screened  enclosures,  and  if  flies  are 
abundant  the  kitchen  and  dining-room  also  should  be  screened. 
Such  precautions  are  not  expensive  and  often  will  avert  serious 
sickness  in  camp. 

The  sleeping  quarters  should  be  well  Hghted  and  ventilated, 
and  where  many  men  are  quartered  in  one  building  each  work- 
man should  have  loo  cubic  feet  of  air  space  and  12  square  feet  of 
floor  space.  Where  a  large  number  of  men  are  housed  in  one 
building  it  should  be  disinfected  at  least  once  a  week.  Personal 
cleanhness  should  be  enforced,  but  this  can  only  be  done  when 
suitable  bathing  quarters  and  laundry  equipment  are  provided. 
Underclothing  should  be  washed  each  week,  since  by  doing  so 
the  men  are  kept  in  better  health  and  the  danger  of  wound  infec- 
tion from  cuts  is  greatly  lessened.  A  practice  exists  in  some 
regions  of  hiring  a  man  to  do  laundry  work,  charging  each  laborer 
a  stated  price.  This  is  considered  a  better  method  than  requir- 
ing the  men  to  wash  their  own  clothing  because  of  the  difficulty 
of  enforcing  this  rule,  and  also  because  Sunday,  which  is  the  only 
available  day  for  washing,  is  needed  by  the  men  for  relaxation 
and  rest. 

MEDICAL   ATTENTION 

Lumber  companies  in  some  sections,  particularly  the  South, 
where  logging  camps  are  located  near  the  manufacturing  plant, 


CAMPS  71 

maintain  medical  staffs  and  hospitals  to  care  for  their  employees. 
This  is  especially  the  case  where  the  town  in  which  the  plant 
is  situated  is  controlled  by  the  lumber  company.  Employees 
are  charged  a  certain  sum  per  month  for  medical  attention, 
averaging  $1.25  for  married  men  and  75  cents  for  single  men. 
The  hospital  fees  are  small  and  cover  only  the  cost  of  board. 
The  doctors  visit  the  camp  at  stated  intervals  and  are  subject 
to  call  at  any  time  for  the  treatment  of  persons  critically  ill  or 
seriously  injured. 

The  medical  staff  may  be  employed  by  the  company  on  a 
salary  basis,  or  the  doctors  may  be  allowed  all  fees,  except  10 
per  cent  retained  by  the  company  for  collection. 

In  some  of  the  western  states  the  loggers'  unions  make  arrange- 
ments with  hospitals  for  the  care  of  sick  or  injured  members, 
each  of  whom  by  the  payment  of  a  monthly  fee  of  50  or  75  cents 
becomes  eligible  for  a  ticket  which  insures  him  medical  atten- 
tion. The  hospitals  which  are  located  in  a  number  of  the 
larger  cities  in  the  Inland  Empire  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast  are 
not  controlled  by  the  unions.  The  medical  benefits  of  the  unions 
do  not  extend  to  the  camps. 


CHAPTER  VI 

WOODWORKERS'  TOOLS  AND  EQUIPMENT 

AXES 

An  ax  head  consists  of  two  parts:  namely,  the  bit  or  cutting 
edge  and  the  head  or  poll.  The  latter  has  an  eye  into  which  is 
fitted  the  helve  or  handle.  There  are  several  types  of  axes,  chief 
among  which  are  the  felling  ax,  the  broadax  and  the  turpentine 
ax. 

Felling  Ax. — This  is  used  for  felling,  log-making,  swamping 
and  other  chopping  work.  The  head  is  made  in  a  variety  of 
patterns  and  of  several  weights.  It  tapers  from  the  poll  to 
the  bit  and  has  either  smooth,  slightly  concave  or  beveled 
sides.  The  eye  is  oval-shaped  and  has  a  larger  diameter  on  the 
side  opposite  the  handle  in  order  that  a  wedge  may  be  inserted  in 
the  handle  head.  The  head  may  have  one  or  two  cutting  edges. 
The  former  is  known  as  a  single-bitted  and  the  latter  as  a  double- 
bitted  ax.  A  single-bit  is  in  common  use  where  a  Hght  ax  is 
required,  where  a  single  cutting  blade  is  needed,  or  where  the 
ax  is  to  be  used  for  striking.  A  double-bitted  ax  is  service- 
able where  a  woodsman  has  need  of  a  sharp  cutting  edge,  and  at 
times  must  cut  dry  knots  and  other  material  that  quickly  dull 
the  tool.  It  is  a  favorite  with  swampers  and  some  sawyers  prefer 
it  for  driving  wedges. 

Bits  are  made  of  steel  and  are  either  straight  or  curved. 
They  must  be  properly  tempered  for  if  too  soft  the  edge  will 
turn  and  if  too  hard  it  will  break. 

The  weight  of  the  head  depends  on  the  character  of  work  that 
is  to  be  performed  and  the  personal  ideas  of  the  laborer.  For 
felling  in  ordinary  timber  a  head  weighing  from  3I  to  4  pounds 
is  generally  used.  This  is  somewhat  lighter  than  those  used  by 
swampers  and  others  who  cut  limbs  and  brush,  snipe  logs  and 
perform  similar  work. 


WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS   AND    EQUIPMENT  73 

The  handles  for  single-bitted  axes  are  either  curved  or  straight, 
tht  choice  being  largely  one  of  individual  preference.  Handles 
are  preferably  of  second-growth  hickory,  but  if  made  by  the 
camp  blacksmith  they  are  often  of  hard  maple.  In  the  eastern 
part  of  the  United  States  loggers 
generally  choose  a  36-inch  handle, 
while  on  the  Pacific  Coast  where 
large  timber  is  felled,  the  lengths 
range  between  38  and  40  inches 
for  the    average   size    timber,   up  ,  .        , 

.       ,  p  ,  .  ;  Ml  «- Double-bitted  A:xe. 

to  44  inches  for  the  massive  red-  ((//        )      ^  singie-bufed  asc. 

woods.    Handles  for  double-bitted  -    ^J^         4^  d-BroadA^e! 


axes  are    straight    in    order   that 

either   bit   may    be  used.     They 

are  made  in  the  same  lengths  as     fig.  12."— Characteristic  Types  of 

those  for  single-bitted  axes.  Ax  Heads. 

Single-bitted  ax  heads  cost  from  60  to  75  cents  each;  double- 
bitted  ax  heads  from  80  cents  to  $1. 

A  straight-grained  ax  handle  of  the  best  quality  costs  from 
20  to  25  cents;   a  turned  handle,  from  7  to  10  cents. 

Broadax. — The  broadax  is  used  for  hewing  timbers  and  cross- 
ties,  and  performing  like  work.  The  more  common  form  has 
a  reversible  bit,  ii§  or  12  inches  long,  a  heavy  square  poll  and 
a  flat  inner  face.  It  may  be  used  either  right-handed  or  left- 
handed.  The  outer  side  has  a  slightly  concave  face  and  a  cut- 
ting bevel  f  of  an  inch  wide  on  the  bit.  The  usual  weight  of 
the  head  is  6  or  7  pounds.  Handles  are  preferably  of  second- 
growth  hickory  and  are  from  26  to  36  inches  long  with  a  slight 
upward  curve  immediately  behind  the  eye  which  enables  the 
workman  to  assume  a  more  upright  position  and  still  retain  a 
correct  cutting  angle  for  the  blade. 

Turpentine  Ax.  —  A  special  form  of  ax  is  used  in  southern  pine 
forests  for  cutting  the  ''boxes"  or  receptacles  in  the  bases  of  the 
trees  in  which  the  crude  turpentine  is  collected. 

It  is  made  in  two  patterns,  namely,  the  square  poll  and  the 
round  poll,  the  type  used  being  a  matter  of  personal  choice.  The 
chief   feature  of    a  turpentine  ax  is  a  long,  narrow  bit  which 


74 


LOGGING 


enables  the  cutting  of  a  deep  but  narrow  incision.  The  usual 
dimensions  are:  length,  ii|^  or  12  inches;  width  of  blade,  3^ 
inches.  The  weight  averages  5^  or  6  pounds.  Straight  hickory 
handles  36  inches  in  length  are  considered  best. 

SAWS 

Saws  are  made  in  a  variety  of  lengths  and  widths  of  blade, 
and  in  numerous  shapes  and  patterns  of  teeth  to  meet  special 
requirements  and  to  conform  to  the  preferences  of  certain 
localities. 

The  Blade. — In  small-  and  medium-sized  timber  a  6-  to  6^-foot 
saw  is  commonly  used,  while  for  the  fir  timber  of  the  Pacific 
Coast  the  saws  range  in  length  from  8  to  10  feet,  with  a  maxi- 
mum length  of  18  feet  in  the  redwood  region.  The  width  varies 
with  the  pattern  of  the  saw,  and  ranges  from  4  to  8^  inches. 

A  slightly  curved  saw  blade  is  most  frequently  used  because  it 
affords  a  larger  space  for  sawdust.  This  makes  it  run  with  less 
friction  and  the  work  is  less  fatiguing.  In  order  further  to 
reduce  friction,  saws  are  usually  made  thinner  at  the  back  than 
at  the  cutting  edge.  Saws  made  for  felling  large  Pacific  Coast 
timber  are  often  more  limber  than  those  used  for  log-making, 
because  the  latter  are  operated  by  one  man  and  a  stiff  saw  is 
needed  to  prevent  the  blade  from  buckling  on  the  forward  stroke. 

The  price  of  a  saw  is  governed  by  its  length  and  the  quality 
of  steel.     The  following  prices  are  approximate: 


Length  in  feet. 

Price  per  single  blade. 

6^ 

8 
10 
12 
18 

$2.85-  350 
3.50-  4.50 
6.00-  8.00 
9.00-10.00 

15.00-16.00 

Handles. — The  handles  used  on  cross-cut  saws  are  round, 
about  i^  inches  in  diameter,  and  range  in  length  from  12  to  18 
inches.  They  are  fastened  either  by  clasps  which  fit  into  holes 
in  the  ends  of  the  saw,  or  by  loops  which  fit  over  the  ends  of  the 


WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS   AND    EQUIPMENT 


75 


saw  and  are  tightened  by  a  screw  inside  the  handle.  Either  form 
permits  ready  removal  from  the  blade.  Handles  cost  from  15 
to  75  cents  a  pair,  the  average  price  being  about  25  cents. 


Fig.  13.  —  Common  Types  of  Cross-cut  Saw  Handles,  a.  Reversible  saw  handle 
used  in  the  Pacific  Coast  forests,  h.  Clima.x  pattern  saw  handle,  c.  Hoop 
handle. 

Teeth.  —  The  teeth  on  a  cross-cut  saw  are  arranged  in  pairs, 
trios  or  quadruplets,  each  set  of  which  is  usually  separated  by  a 
cleaner  or  raker  for  removing  the  sawdust.  Where  skilful  filers 
are  not  available  a  saw  without  rakers  is  used,  the  sawdust  being 
carried  out  of  the  cut  by  the  teeth.  The  forms  of  teeth  preferred 
are  as  follows :  yellow  pine,  cypress  and  spruce  —  perforated 
lance  teeth,  arranged  in  sets  of  four  (Fig.  14a) ;  white  pine,  hem- 
lock and  cedar  —  broad  teeth  in  sets  of  two  (Fig.  14b);  poplar 
and  Cottonwood  —  heavy  sohd  teeth  in  twos  (Fig.  14c);  redwood 
- —  solid  lance  teeth  in  twos  (Fig.  i4d) ;  Douglas  fir  —  sohd  lance 
teeth  in  fours  (Fig.  i4e) ;  white  oak  —  solid  teeth  in  sets  of  three 
(Fig.  i4f). 

The  cutting  teeth  constitute  a  series  of  knives  which  strike  the 
fibres  at  right  angles  and  sever  them  on  either  side  of  the  cut. 
The  cleaners  or  rakers  free  the  severed  fibres  which  are  ther 
carried  out  in  the  cavities  of  the  teeth  in  the  form  of  sawdust 
occupying  about  six  times  as  much  space  as  the  fibres  did  pre- 
vious to  cutting.  Long,  stringy  sawdust  denotes  a  well-fitted 
saw. 

Loose-textured  and  long-fibred  woods  are  the  most  difficult  to 


76 


LOGGING 


saw  because  the  teeth  tear  rather  than  cut  the  fibres,  a  larger 
quantity  of  sawdust  is  produced,  and  the  rough  character  of  the 
walls  of  the  cut  offers  great  resistance  to  the  saw.  Coniferous 
wood  is  more  readily  sawed  than  hardwood,  because  of  its  simple 
anatomical  structure  and  fine  medullary  rays. 


PERFECTION 


PERFECTION  NO. 4 


REX  FALLING 


/1J1J«WWI«WJ™^'^^^^ 


PEERLESS 


c  d 


REDWOOD  KING 


EUREKA  FALLING 


e  e  f 

Fig.  14.  —  Saw  Teeth  Patterns,  a.  Often  used  for  sawing  yellow  pine,  cypress 
and  spruce,  b.  For  sawing  white  pine,  hemlock  and  cedar,  c.  For  sawing 
poplar  and  cottonwood.  d.  For  sawing  redwood,  c.  For  sawing  Douglas  fir. 
/.  For  sawing  white  oak. 

Experiments  made  by  Gayer^  show  the  resistance  to  the  saw 
across  the  fibres  of  green  timber  to  be  as  follows,  the  resistance 
to  beech  being  assumed  as  i. 


Resistance  to  saw. 

Scotch  pine,  silver  fir  and  spruce. .  .  . 

Maple,  larch,  alder 

Beech 

0.50-0.60 

0.75-0.90 

I. GO 

I    03 

I .30-1 .40 

1.80 

Oak 

Aspen  and  birch 

Willow  and  poplar 

1  Gayer,  Karl:  Forest  Utilization  (Vol.  V,  Schlich's  Manual  of  Forestry;  trans, 
from  the  German  by  W.  R.  Fisher;  2nd  ed.).  London;  Bradbury,  Agnew  and 
Company,  1908. 


WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS   AND    EQUIPMENT  77 

Saw-fitting.  —  The  cutting  edges  of  the  teeth  are  beveled  to  a 
fine  point,  the  degree  of  bevel  depending  on  the  character  and 
condition  of  the  wood. 

The  filing  and  care  of  saw  teeth  is  called  ''saw-fitting,"  and 
requires  skill  and  experience. 

The  tools  that  comprise  a  complete  saw-fitting  set  for  cross- 
cut saws  are  as  follows: 

I  combined  tooth  gauge,  jointer  and  side  file. 

I  saw  set. 

I  tooth  set  gauge. 

I  swage,  or  i  set-hammer. 

Several  flat  files. ^ 

A  set  of  filing  tools  costs  from  50  to  75  cents. 

Some  of  the  essential  features  of  a  well-fitted  saw  are  as 
follows:^ 

(i)  All  cutting  teeth  must  be  the  same  length  so  that  each 
will  do  its  share  of  the  work. 

(2)  The  rakers  or  cleaners  should  be  not  less  than  y1)Q  of  an 
inch  nor  more  than  q\  of  an  inch  shorter  than  the  teeth. 

(3)  The  form  of  tooth  bevel  required  depends  on  the  char- 
acter of  timber  that  is  being  sawed.  It  should  not  be  too  flat 
for  sawing  frozen  timber,  very  hard  timber  or  wood  that  has 
many  tough  knots.     (See  Fig.  15.) 

(4)  All  teeth  should  be  filed  to  a  sharp  point. 

(5)  Saws  require  a  certain  amount  of  "set,"  which  consists 
in  springing  out  alternate  teeth  in  one  direction  and  the  re- 
mainder in  the  opposite  direction  so  that  the  saw  will  cut  a  kerf 
somewhat  greater  than  the  thickness  of  the  blade.  Dense- 
fibred  and  frozen  hardwoods  require  the  least  set,  while  pitchy 
pine  and  soft  broadleaf  trees  require  the  maximum.  Only  the 
minimum  set  required  should  be  given  because  the  greater  the 
set  the  more  power  required  to  pull  the  saw. 

1  Flat  files  from  6  to  8  inches  long  are  preferred  by  saw  fitters.  The  life  of 
a  file  depends  on  its  quality;  as  a  rule  one  good  file  will  fit  from  6  to  14  saws. 
They  cost  from  7  to  9  cents  for  a  6-inch  file,  and  from  9  to  12  cents  for  an  8-inch 
file. 

2  See  Saw  Fitting  for  Best  Results.  E.  C.  Atkins  &  Co.  Indianapolis, 
Indiana. 


78 


LOGGING 


Saws  may  be  fitted  by  a  member  of  the  saw  crew  or  by  a 
regular  filer,  who  can  fit  from  twelve  to  fifteen  saws  daily. 
Where  a  greater  number  is  required  the  work  of  fitting  may 
often  be  done  to  advantage  in  a  filing  shop  at  the  camp. 

A 


/  i' 

Fig.  15.  —  The  Forms  of  Bevel  used  on  Cross-cut  Saws.  a.  Diamond  point  bevel, 
easy  to  maintain,  and  the  point  holds  well.  b.  Bevel  for  a  tooth  where  there 
are  no  rakers,  the  teeth  cleaning  out  the  sawdust,  c.  Bevel  for  knots  and 
frozen  timber  where  strength  is  needed  in  the  extreme  point  —  not  adapted  for 
fast  sawing,  d.  Round  point  for  fast,  smooth  sawing,  in  knotty  timber,  c. 
Bevel  for  fast,  smooth  sawing  —  teeth  strong.  /.  Flat,  thin  bevel  for  soft  wood 
and  fast  sawing  —  point  is  not  as  strong  as  that  shown  in  c.  g.  Bevel  adapted 
for  general  work.     //.  Bevel  adapted  for  general  work. 

When  the  felhng  crew  does  the  log-making,  from  one  to  two 
sharp  saws  are  provided  each  day,  otherwise  a  sharp  saw  is 
furnished  every  other  day. 

Saws  filed  daily  are  serviceable  for  a  period  of  from  two  to 
four  months  and  are  then  turned  over  to  road-making  crews  and 
other  laborers  who  do  not  require  high-grade  tools. 

POWER    FELLING    MACHINES 

There  has  not  been  a  satisfactory  power-driven  tree-felling 
machine  placed  on  the  market.  Machines  of  various  types  have 
been  patented  and  offered  for  sale  but  they  have  not  proved  of 
practical  value. 


WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS   AND    EQUIPMENT  79 

Among  the  devices  invented  in  Europe  was  one  consisting  of 
a  platinum  wire  stretched  in  a  frame  fitted  with  insulated 
handles.  The  wire  was  heated  to  white  heat  by  an  electric 
current  and  then  applied  to  the  bole  of  the  tree  through  which 
it  was  designed  to  burn  its  way.  It  has  never  been  introduced 
in  this  country. 

Another  device  that  was  patented  consisted  of  a  chisel-like  tool 
actuated  by  a  power  machine,  which  was  intended  to  cut  a 
channel  through  the  tree. 

Other  devices  such  as  drag  saws  and  cross-cut  saws  operated 
by  steam  or  gasoline  power  have  been  devised,  but  they  have 
all  been  too  heavy  and  bulky  for  transportation  in  the  forest. 
Their  weight  is  not  only  a  handicap  in  getting  the  machine  around 
through  brushy  woods  and  over  rough  bottom,  but  also  pre- 
vents their  rapid  removal  from  the  vicinity  of  falling  timber 
where  they  are  continually  subject  to  damage. 

POWER    LOG-MAKING    MACHINES^ 

On  comparatively  level  land  in  an  open  forest  composed  of 
large  trees,  air-driven  drag  saws,  called  "steam  dagos"  have 
been  used  successfully  for  "bucking-up"  logs. 

The  equipment  consists  of  a  traction  engine  with  an  air 
compressor  and  an  air  storage  tank.  The  saws  which  may  be 
attached  readily  to  a  log  of  any  size  are  of  the  drag-saw  type, 
driven  by  a  piston  working  from  a  small  cylinder,  mounted  on 
a  metal  frame  weighing  from  60  to  75  pounds.  The  cylinder  is 
connected  with  the  air  chamber  on  the  engine  by  a  line  of  hose 
of  sufficient  length  to  give  a  working  radius  of  300  feet.  Three 
frames  and  one  saw  are  the  usual  equipment  for  an  outfit. 

Another  type  of  log-making  machine,  patented  in  1907,  is 
known  as  the  Endless  Chain  Saw.  The  essential  features  of  the 
machine  are  an  endless  chain  in  which  the  links,  represented  by 
saw  teeth  shaped  like  those  of  a  cross-cut  saw,  are  riveted  to- 
gether. The  backs  of  the  teeth  fit  into  sprockets.  The  chain  is 
supported  by  a  steel  arm  from  6  to  9  feet  long,  one  end  of  which  is 
pivoted  to  the  frame  carrying  the  machinery.     This  arm  carries 

1  See  page  100. 


8o 


LOGGING 


Fig. 


i6.  —  Tlu  I  ndk-  C  ham  Saw  u^ed  in  Bucking-up  L< 
in  the  Pacific  Coast  Forests. 


a  driving  sprocket  at  the  attached  end  and  a  blank  sprocket  at 
the  free  end  over  which  the  chain  travels.  The  arm  is  raised  and 
lowered  by  cables  fastened  to  a  light  metal  derrick  which  is 
mounted  on  the  frame  of  the  machine. 

Power  for  driving  the  saw  is  furnished  by  a  twenty-  or  thirty- 
five-horse-power,    four-cylinder    gasoline    engine,    directly   con- 


WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS   AND    EQUIPMENT  8 1 

nected  to  the  driving  shaft  of  the  saw.  The  machine  is  mounted 
on  skids  13I  feet  long,  shod  with  a  Hght  steel  rail  on  which  the 
machine  can  be  moved  forward  or  backward  for  a  working  dis- 
tance of  9I  feet.  This  permits  a  number  of  cuts  to  be  made  at 
each  set-up  of  the  machine. 

The  saw,  mounted,  weighs  about  1200  pounds.  The  sav/  can 
cut  at  any  angle  up  to  90  degrees  and  is  run  at  a  speed  of  2500 
linear  feet  per  minute,  cutting  a  kerf  one-half  inch  wide.  The 
manufacturers  claim  that  the  saw  will  sever  a  6-foot  log  in 
four  minutes.  The  largest  log  that  can  be  cut  is  8|  feet  in 
diameter. 

The  machine  is  dragged  about  and  logs  are  rolled  over  by 
means  of  a  cable  which  is  wound  on  a  drum  driven  by  the  engine. 

Jacks  are  used  to  level  the  track  when  the  machine  is  used 
on  uneven  ground. 


An  essential  feature  of  every  faller's  and  log-maker's  equip- 
ment is  the  wedge  which  is  used  to  assist  in  directing  the  fall  of 
trees  and  to  prevent  the  binding  of  the  saw  in  the  cut.  They 
are  made  either  of  metal  or  hardwood.  Iron  or  steel  wedges 
may  be  made  by  the  camp  blacksmith,  or  purchased  from  dealers 
in  loggers'  supplies  at  from  7  to  10  cents  per  pound. 


LJ 
/ 

Fig.  17.  ■ —  Some  Patterns  of  Wedges  used  by  Loggers,  a.  A  wood  chopper's 
wedge,  b.  Tie  maker's  and  faller's  wedge,  c.  Wood  chopper's  wedge,  d. 
Faller's  wedge,  c.  Faller's  wedge,  Pacific  Coast  type.  /.  Log-maker's  wedge. 
Pacific  Coast  type. 

The  size  and  weight  of  metal  wedges  vary  with  the  work  for 
which  they  are  used,  and  the  pattern  is  largely  a  matter  of 
individual  choice.     Felling  wedges,  especially  when  used  in  large 


82  LOGGING 

timber,  are  longer  than  those  used  for  log-making.  A  common 
form  of  metal  wedge  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  by  fallers  is  made 
from  I -inch  steel  and  is  about  13  inches  long  and  3  inches  wide. 
In  Maine  the  felhng  wedges  are  shorter  and  may  be  shaped 
somewhat  like  a  hatchet  head.  They  are  6  or  7  inches  long, 
3  inches  wide  at  the  base,  and  i|  inches  wide  and  i  inch  thick  at 
the  top.  On  the  Pacific  Coast  the  buckers  often  employ  a  wedge 
similar  to  the  one  used  for  felling,  although  the  length  seldom 
exceeds  7  inches.  In  most  regions  fallers  and  log-makers  use 
the  same  type  of  wedge. 

Since  smooth-faced  metal  wedges  are  likely  to  rebound, 
shallow  grooves  are  often  made  on  the  faces  so  that  when  driven 
into  a  cut  the  pressure  causes  the  wood  to  fill  the  groove  and 
prevents  any  backward  movement.  The  faces  are  sometimes 
roughened  slightly  with  a  cold  chisel  to  accomplish  the  same 
purpose. 

Hardwood  wedges  of  hickory,  hard  maple,  beech,  ironwood, 
dogwood  and  persimmon  are  frequently  used  in  the  southern 
pine  regions  where  timber  for  their  manufacture  is  accessible. 
They  are  preferred  because  they  are  inexpensive  and  hold  well 
in  a  cut.  They  may  be  made  by  the  sawyers  as  needed  or  by 
contract  at  about  2  cents  each.  They  are  ordinarily  6  or  8  inches 
long,  2I  or  3^  inches  wide  and  i  inch  in  thickness  at  the  head. 

FelHng  crews  in  the  Northwest  usually  carry  two  long  and 
three  short  wedges;  log-makers,  five  short  ones.  In  other  re- 
gions where  the  timber  is  of  medium  size  the  sawyers  use  from 
two  to  four  wedges.  From  twenty  to  forty  wooden  wedges  per 
month  are  required  by  a  saw  crew  of  two  men. 

Metal  wedges  are  often  carried  by  the  fallers  in  a  small  canvas 
sack  slung  over  the  shoulder,  or  one  is  fastened  at  each  end  of  a 
piece  of  hay  wire,  3  or  4  feet  long.  Wooden  wedges  are  carried 
in  the  pockets  of  the  workmen. 

MAULS    AND    SLEDGES 

Iron  wedges  are  generally  driven  by  means  of  a  wooden  maul. 
These  are  made  by  the  camp  blacksmith  from  hard  maple,  yellow 
birch  or  any  tough  wood.     A  common  form  used  in  Maine  is 


WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS   AND    EQUIPMENT  83 

made  from  a  round  tree  section,  6  inches  in  diameter  and  from 
26  to  30  inches  long.  An  8-inch  head  is  left  on  one  end  of  the 
section  and  the  remainder  is  trimmed  down  to  a  diameter  of 
2  inches  to  form  a  handle.  The  head  may  or  may  not  be 
bound  with  iron  hoops  to  prevent  splitting.  Iron  sledge 
hammers  of  4  or  5  pounds'  weight  are  sometimes  used  in 
place  of  mauls  for  driving  metal  wedges.  Wooden  wedges  are 
driven  either  with  an  ax  or  a  sledge. 

SPRING    BOARDS 

These  are  used  only  in  the  Northwest,  and  serve  as  plat- 
forms on  which  notchers  and  fallers  stand  when  performing 
their  work.      The  spring  board    with   the   spur  uppermost   is 


Fig.   18.  —  A  Spring  Board  used  by  Fallers  in  the  Northwest. 

thrust  into  a  notch  cut  into  the  tree  and  when  weight  is  appUed 
to  the  outer  end  of  the  board  the  spur  is  forced  into  the  wood 
and  prevents  the  board  from  slipping. 

KILHIG   OR   SAMPSON 

This  tool  is  used  as  a  lever  to  aid  in  directing  the  fall  of  a  tree. 
It  consists  of  a  pole  3  or  4  inches  in  diameter  and  from  8  to  16 
feet  long,  either  sharpened  or  armed  on  one  end  with  a  spike. 
In  operation  the  pointed  end  of  the  pole  is  placed  in  a  notch 
in  the  tree  trunk  from  5  to  8  feet  above  ground.  The  free  end 
projects  downward  to  a  point  10  or  12  inches  above  the  ground 
where  it  is  supported  on  a  peavey  handle  or  a  pole  the  lower  end 
of  which  is  firmly  planted  in  the  ground.  A  laborer  grasps  the 
free  end  of  the  peavey  handle  and  by  pressing  forward  is  able 
to  exert  a  very  strong  pressure  against  the  bole  of  the  tree. 
Kilhigs  are  frequently  made  as  needed  by  the  saw  crew  since  it 


84  LOGGING 

is  easier  to  cut  a  pole  than  it  is  to  carry  one.  This  tool  is  in 
common  use  in  the  Northeast.  There  are  several  patent  tools 
of  similar  character  used  in  European  forests  but  they  have  not 
met  with  favor  in  this  country. 


Fig.  19.  —  A  Kilhig  or  Sampson  used  in  Directing  the  Fall  of  a  Tree. 


MEASURING    STICKS 

The  measuring  sticks  carried  by  log-makers  are  usually  8  feet 
long,  where  logs  24  feet  and  under  are  being  cut.  In  the  North- 
west they  are  often  10  feet  long.  They  may  be  made  by  the 
sawyers  from  a  straight  sapling  with  little  taper,  or  by  the  camp 
blacksmith  from  squared  sticks  which  are  cut  to  exact  length  and 
on  which  marks  are  placed  at  two-foot  intervals.  Unless  measur- 
ing sticks  are  metal-tipped,  sawyers  are  apt  to  chop  off  one  end 
when  marking  log  lengths  on  the  bole. 


The  peavey  is  used  as  a  lever  to  handle  logs,  and  is  an  indis- 
pensable part  of  a  logger's  equipment.  The  standard  maple  or 
ash  handle  is  5,  5I  or  6  feet  long,  but  it  may  be  made  in  special 


WOODWORKERS'   TOOLS   AND   EQUIPMENT 


85 


lengths  from  4I  to  8  feet.     There  are  two  types,  namely,  the 
socket  peavey  and  the  clip  peavey. 

The  handle  of  the  first  is  fitted  into  a  socket,  which  is  armed 
on  the  lower  end  with  a  pike, 
and  on  the  upper   end  of   the 
socket  is  a  clasp  to  which  the 
hook  is  bolted. 

The  second  has  a  pike  driven 
into  the  end  of  the  handle,  which 
is  bound  with  a  metal  band  to 
prevent  the  wood  from  sphtting. 
The  hook  is  attached  to  a  clip 
or  clasp  independent  of  the  pike. 

The  hooks  are  of  three  types, 
namely,  "round  bill,"  ''duck 
bill"  and  ''chisel."  The  round 
bill  is  preferred  for  summer 
work  because  it  does  not  stick  in  the  log;  the  duck  bill 
is  best  for  frozen  timber  as  it  will  penetrate  the  wood  more 
readily  than  the  other  forms;  the  chisel  point  is  in  limited 
use. 

A  peavey  of  standard  form  costs  from  $1.25  to  $1.75. 


Fig, 


A  Socket  Peavey. 


Cant 


CANT   HOOKS 

hooks  are  used  for  purposes  similar  to  the  peavey,  al- 
though they  are  employed  more  around 
mills  and  in  handling  sawed  timber  than 
in  handling  logs.  Standard  handles  are 
4^,  5  and  sh  feet  in  length.  They  are 
shod  on  the  end  with  a  heavy  band  of 
iron,  carrying  on  its  under  side  a  "toe" 
which  replaces  the  pike  on  the  peavey. 
A  hook  of  the  same  character  as  that  on 
the  peavey  is  fastened  to  the  handle  by  a 
clasp. 

A  cant  hook  costs  from  $1  to  $1.50. 


Fig.  21.  —  a  Cant  Hook. 


86 


LOGGING 


PICKAROON 

Laborers  engaged  in  bringing  cross-ties,  stave  bolts  and  other 
timber  down  steep  slopes  often  use  a  pickaroon,  which  has  a 
handle  36  or  38  inches  long  on  the  end  of  which  is  attached  a 
head  with  a  recurved  pike.  These  heads  are  frequently  made 
from  worn-out  ax  heads  by  removing  a  portion  of  the  cutting 
edge. 

UNDERCUTTERS 

The  undercutter  is  a  tool  used  by  the  "bucker"  or  log^maker 
in  the  Northwest.     It  serves  as  a  support  for  the  saw  when 
making  an  undercut  on  a  fallen  tree. 

It  consists  of  a  round  or  flat  rod  of 
iron  about  2  feet  long  with  a  head  on 
one  end  and  single  or  double  claws  on 
the  other.  These  claws  are  sharp  and 
are  driven  into  the  side  of  the  bole. 
SHding  on  this  rod  is  a  block  carrying 
a  milled  wheel  which  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  to  accommodate  the  depth  of 
cut,  and  on  this  the  back  of  the  saw 
Fig.  22.-AType  of  Under-  ^^^^^    Buckers  frequently  dispense  with 

cutter   used    in    the    Pacific  ^ 

Coast  Forests,    a  is  the  saw  undercutters  because  of  the  annoyance 

blade  resting  on   the  milled    of  carrying  them. 

wheel. 

USE    OF    KEROSENE 

In  felling  coniferous  woods  resin  collects  on  the  saw  and  soon 
causes  it  to  bind.  This  is  remedied  by  the  use  of  kerosene. 
Fallers  and  log-makers  in  the  pine  forests  of  the  South  carry  a 
pint  bottle  of  kerosene,  fitted  with  a  stopper  made  from  green 
pine  needles.  The  crew  usually  keeps  a  gallon  can  near  at  hand 
from  which  to  replenish  its  supply.  At  frequent  intervals  the 
saw  is  sprinkled  on  both  sides  with  the  oil.  A  crew  cutting  from 
12,000  to  15,000  feet  log  scale  daily  will  use  from  one  and  one- 
half  to  three  pints  of  kerosene.  Four  gallons  per  week. is  re- 
garded as  a  liberal  allowance. 


CHAPTER  VII 
FELLING  AND  LOG-MAKING 

SEASON 

The  period  of  the  year  in  which  felHng  is  done  is  governed  by 
climatic  conditions  and  by  the  method  of  logging  followed. 

Where  loggers  rely  on  a  heavy  snowfall  to  furnish  a  bottom 
for  transporting  logs,  felling  begins  in  the  late  summer  or  early 
fall  and  continues  until  the  snow  becomes  too  deep  for  profit- 
able skidding,  which  is  about  the  middle  or  latter  part  of 
December. 

On  railroad  operations  in  the  Northern  States  felling  is 
carried  on  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  ceasing  only 
when  the  snow  becomes  too  deep  for  operation,  or  when  deemed 
advisable  because  of  market  conditions. 

In  the  coniferous  forests  of  the  South  and  in  the  Northwest 
felhng  is  carried  on  the  year  round  as  weather  conditions  seldom 
interfere  with  logging. 

Hardwood  felling  may  continue  throughout  the  year.  Owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  sapwood  of  species  such  as  hickory  is  subject 
to  insect  damage^  if  cut  during  the  summer  months,  the  season 
of  felling  may  be  restricted  to  the  resting  period  of  the  tree, 
although  hardwoods  can  be  cut  safely  at  any  season  if  they  are 
manufactured  in  a  short  time  and  the  lumber  well  piled  and 
seasoned.     The  galleries  made  in  sapwood  by  insects  furnish 

^  Certain  species  of  ambrosia  beetles,  sawyers  and  timber  worms  are  very  de- 
structive to  the  sapwood  of  felled  hardwood  and  coniferous  timber  during  a  portion 
of  the  year.  The  danger  of  attack  is  greatest  in  timber  cut  during  the  fall  and 
winter  and  left  on  the  ground  or  in  close  piles  during  the  early  spring  and  summer; 
also  in  trees  cut  during  the  warm  season.  The  presence  of  bark  is  necessary  for 
infestation  by  most  of  these  insects  and  the  danger  can  be  largely  avoided  by  not 
allowing  the  logs  to  accumulate  during  the  danger  season,  or  by  barking  such  as 
carmot  be  removed  within  a  few  weeks.  (A  detailed  discussion  of  these  problems 
may  be  found  in  various  publications  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology.) 

87 


88  LOGGING 

the  means  of  entrance  for  the  spores  of  certain  fungi  ^  which 
cause  a  discoloration.  The  fungi  develop  most  rapidly  during 
warm,  sultry  weather.  Summer-felled  timber  may  be  very  seri- 
ously damaged  by  insects  and  fungi  in  from  two  to  four  weeks. 

The  felling  time  of  trees,  such  as  oak,  is  sometimes  restricted 
to  the  late  summer  and  early  fall  if  the  timber  is  to  be  trans- 
ported by  water  because  heavy  species  cut  at  this  season  and 
allowed  to  dry  for  from  sixty  to  ninety  days  will  float. 

The  logging  of  hemlock  is  restricted  to  the  period  between 
May  and  August,  at  which  time  only  the  bark  can  readily  be 
removed.  As  it  is  a  valuable  by-product,  used  for  tanning  pur- 
poses, the  logger  cannot  afford  to  cut  the  timber  without  saving 
the  bark. 

Tanbarks  are  also  secured  from  chestnut  oak  {Qiiercus  priniis) 
and  from  the  tanbark  oak  of  California  {Quercus  densiflora) .  The 
season  for  peeling  chestnut  oak  is  from  early  April  until  the  end 
of  June,  and  for  tanbark  oak,  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the 
middle  of  July.  The  timber  in  both  cases  is  now  used  for  com- 
mercial purposes,  although  the  bark  is  the  more  valuable  product. 

Coppice  fellings  should  be  made  during  the  winter  and  early 
spring  because  the  sprouts  are  then  more  thrifty  than  those  from 
trees  cut  during  the  growing  period.-  Late  winter  felling  is 
preferred  because  there  is  less  chance  for  the  bark  to  be  loosened 
from  the  stool  by  the  collection  and  freezing  of  moisture. 

The  season  of  the  year  in  which  timber  is  cut  does  not,  so  far 
as  known,  influence  its  strength,  although  it  may  affect  its  dura- 
bility. Hardwoods  are  more  complex  in  structure  and  are  more 
easily  damaged  in  seasoning  than  are  softwoods.  Winter-felled 
hardwood  timber  air  dries  more  satisfactorily  than  summer-felled 
timber  because  the  water  content  evaporates  slowly  and  the 
woody  structure  adapts  itself  to  the  gradual  shrinkage  with  a 
minimum  amount  of  checking. 

^  There  are  several  genera  of  fungi  which  attack  the  sapwood  of  deciduous  and 
coniferous  woods,  causing  a  bluish,  blackish  or  reddish  discoloration.  The  infec- 
tion takes  place  largely  through  spores  carried  by  insects  into  the  galleries  that  have 
been  made  by  ambrosia  beetles,  sawyers  and  other  borers. 

2  See  Chestnut  in  Southern  Maryland,  by  Raphael  Zon.  Bulletin  No.  53, 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Forestry,  1904,  pp.  14-17. 


FELLING   AND   LOG-MAKING  89 

DEADENING 

Deadening  or  girdling  consists  in  cutting  a  ring  around  the 
tree  deep  enough  to  penetrate  to  the  heartwood.  This  ring  is 
made  just  above  the  root  swelling,  approximately  at  the  sawing 
point. 

The  deadening  of  trees  reduces  the  water  content  of  the  boles 
and  renders  them  lighter  in  weight.  It  is  seldom  resorted  to 
with  most  species,  because  those  which  cannot  be  floated  when 
cut  in  the  ordinary  way  are  either  left  standing  or  are  railroaded 
to  the  mill.  The  greater  part  of  the  cypress  timber  will  not 
float  in  a  green  condition,  hence  deadening  or  girdling  is  almost 
universal  because  a  large  per  cent  of  the  timber  must  be  taken 
to  the  mill  by  water,  due  to  the  absence  of  railroad  facilities. 
Even  where  c;y'press  timber  is  railroaded  it  is  usually  girdled  be- 
cause (i)  the  logs  will  then  float  in  the  mill  pond,  (2)  the  sap- 
wood  is  rendered  somewhat  tougher  and  skidding  tongs  do  not 
pull  out  so  readily,  and  (3)  the  heartwood  in  green  timber  swells 
during  cutting  and  binds  the  saw. 

Logging  in  cypress  swamps  is  carried  on  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year  and  some  girdle  timber  at  any  convenient  time,  although 
the  sapwood  is  more  subject  to  insect  attacks  at  certain  seasons. 
The  greatest  damage  occurs  during  the  months  from  May  to  Sep- 
tember, inclusive.^  Girdling,  which  precedes  felling  from  a  few 
weeks  to  several  months,  is  generally  done  by  contract  for  7  or 
8  cents  per  tree.  One  man  will  girdle  about  twenty-five  trees 
per  day. 

DIRECTION    OF    FALL 

This  should  be  governed  by  the  following  factors : 
(i)  The  lean  of  the  tree.  By  the  use  of  wedges  a  straight 
tree  may  be  sawed  to  fall  in  any  direction.  Heavily  leaning 
trees  can  be  thrown  by  the  same  means  in  any  one  of  three 
directions,  namely,  as  it  leans  or  to  either  side.  Where  a  tree 
leans  only  shghtly  and  its  inchnation  cannot  be  determined 
readily  by  the  eye,  an  ax  handle  held  suspended  like  a  plumb 

1  Hopkins,  A.  D.:  Pinhole  Injury  to  Girdled  Cypress  in  the  South  Atlantic 
States.     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Cir.  No.  82,  1907. 


90  LOGGING 

line  between  the  line  of  sight  and  the  tree  will  serve  as  an 
indicator. 

In  determining  the  direction  of  fall  the  choice  is  influenced  by 
the  shape  of  the  crown.  Very  few  crowns  are  symmetrical, 
one  side  often  being  heavier  than  the  other,  because  of  better 
light  conditions.  This  preponderance  of  weight  on  one  side  acts 
as  a  powerful  lever  and,  therefore,  must  be  considered  by  the 
faller. 

(2)  The  avoidance  of  lodging  one  tree  in  another. 

(3)  The  selection  of  a  spot  where  the  bole  will  not  be  broken 
on  stumps,  rocks  or  other  objects.  This  requires  special  atten- 
tion in  handling  large  or  brittle  timber.  In  yellow  pine  the  loss 
from  this  source  may  be  i  per  cent  of  the  total,  while  in  western 
red  cedar  it  is  often  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  and  in  redwood 
even  greater.  Boles  of  the  latter  are  sometimes  so  badly 
damaged  in  felling  that  they  are  worthless.  A  bed  for  redwood 
is  frequently  made  by  levehng  the  ground  and  covering  it  with 
brush. 

(4)  The  simplification  of  skidding  work.  In  brushy  regions 
it  is  desirable  to  fell  trees  parallel  to  the  skidding  trail,  since  this 
aids  the  teamster  in  getting  out  the  logs.  Timber  cut  for 
snaking  with  power  skidders  should  be  felled  away  from  or 
toward  the  direction  of  haul,  especially  if  long  timber  is  being 
handled,  because  it  is  difficult  to  drag  out  logs  that  are  otherwise 
placed.  Timber  on  slopes  should  be  felled  either  up  or  down  ac- 
cording to  the  location  of  the  nearest  accessible  skidding  trail. 
Trees  felled  up  steep  slopes  are  less  subject  to  breakage  because 
the  distance  of  fall  is  less.  It  is,  however,  a  more  dangerous 
method  because  the  trees  may  shoot  down  the  slope. 

ORGANIZATION   OF   CREWS 

The  organization  of  crews  for  feUing  and  log-making  differs  in 
the  various  forest  regions.  Sawyers  in  the  Lake  States  often 
work  in  crews  of  two  under  the  direct  charge  of  a  saw  boss,  who 
keeps  a  close  check  on  the  work,  assigns  each  crew  to  a  given 
territory,  specifies  the  length  of  logs  and  sees  that  waste  does  not 
occur  in  cutting.     The  logs  are  prepared  ready  for  the  swamper. 


FELLING   AND   LOG-MAKING  9 1 

In  southern  pine  operations  a  similar  plan  may  be  followed, 
the  sawyers  being  responsible  to  the  logging  boss  or  to  a  con- 
tractor instead  of  a  saw  boss ;  or  two  or  three  saw  crews  may  be  in 
charge  of  a  sub-foreman,  called  a  "chipper  and  notcher,"  who 
notches  trees  for  felling,  marks  off  the  log  lengths,  and  keeps  a 
record  of  the  amount  cut  by  each  crew.  The  duty  of  the  sawyers 
is  to  fell  the  timber  and  to  cut  it  up  into  logs. 

In  Maine  felling  is  often  in  charge  of  a  sub-foreman  called 
the  "head  chopper"  who  is  the  boss  of  a  yarding  crew,  which 
includes  two  fallers,  the  swampers,  teamster,  sled  tender  and 
skid  way  man.  The  head  chopper  notches  the  trees,  lays  off  the 
log  lengths  and  directs  the  work  of  the  yarding  crew. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  notching,  felhng  and  log-making  are 
often  performed  by  separate  crews.  A  notcher,  who  selects  the 
trees  to  be  felled  and  makes  the  undercut,  is  assigned  to  each 
yarding  crew.  Two  fallers  then  cut  the  timber  and  the  notcher 
marks  off  the  log  lengths  for  the  guidance  of  the  buckers  who 
follow.  The  latter  work  singly,  and  two  or  three  are  required  for 
each  felhng  crew.  On  some  operations  a  notcher  is  not  employed, 
the  undercut  being  made  by  the  fallers. 

The  average  day's  work  for  two  men  felling,  bucking  and 
swamping  lodgepole  and  other  small  timber,  running  from  fifteen 
to  sixteen  logs  per  thousand,  is  from  4000  to  5000  feet;  in  small 
yellow  pine  timber,  running  from  twelve  to  fifteen  logs  per 
thousand,  from  7000  to  7500  feet,  and  where  logs  run  from  six 
to  ten  per  thousand,  from  10,000  to  15,000  feet.  On  the  Pacific 
Coast  an  undercutter  will  notch  from  30,000  to  50,000  feet  of 
fir  daily  for  a  crew  of  fallers.  Buckers  average  from  12,000  to 
15,000  feet  each. 

Contract  felHng  and  log-making  in  lodgepole  pine  ranges  from 
$1.25  to  $2  per  thousand  feet;  in  yellow  pine  and  cypress,  from 
35  to  50  cents;  in  fir,  from  50  to  80  cents. 

CUTTING    AREAS 

Sawyers  working  on  a  wage  basis  are  seldom  assigned  to 
specific  bounds,  but  cut  where  the  foreman  of  the  camp  or  the 
saw  boss  directs.     In  regions  where  the  work  is  done  by  contract, 


92 


LOGGING 


fallers  may  be  assigned  to  definite  bounds  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  measurement  of  the  cut  timber. 


NOTCHING 


A  wedge-shaped  notch  or  undercut  is  made  on  the  trunk  in 
the  direction  of  fall,  to  guide  the  tree  and  to  prevent  the  bole 
from  splitting  before  it  is  completely  severed  from  the  stump. 
It  has  a  horizontal  base  extending  shghtly  past  the  center  of  the 


Fig.  23.  — The  Undercut  on  a  Large  Douglas  Fir  Tree.  The  fallers  are  standing 
on  spring  boards  to  enable  them  to  make  the  cut  above  the  root  swelling. 
Washington. 


tree  if  felhng  is  done  with  the  ax,  and  from  one-fifth  to  one- 
fourth  of  the  diameter  when  felling  is  done  with  the  saw.  The 
undercut  on  trees  that  lean  heavily  in  the  felling  direction  is 
made  deeper  than  usual  in  order  to  insure  a  clean  break.  On 
those  that  lean  away  from  the  felling  direction  a  small  notch  is 
cut  because  it  gives  the  wedges  greater  power.  In  felling  large 
redwood  the  sloping  face  of  the  undercut  is  sometimes  made 
below  the  horizontal  cut  instead  of  above  it  in  order  to  avoid 


FELLING   AND    LOG-MAKING  93 

the  waste  of  timber  which  would  occur  if  the  usual  method  were 
followed. 

The  notch  should  be  placed  about  4  inches  below  the  point 
at  which  the  felling  cut  is  started  on  the  opposite  side.  Its 
height  above  ground  is  determined  entirely  by  the  policy  of  the 
logger  regarding  stump  heights.  Notches  are  generally  cut  with 
the  ax,  but  the  horizontal  cut  may  be  made  by  a  saw  and  the 
notch  completed  with  an  ax. 

On  small-  and  medium-sized  timber  the  notch  can  readily  be 
cut  by  a  workman  standing  on  the  ground.  On  account  of  root 
swellings  and  defective  and  pitchy  butts  of  the  large  Pacific 
Coast  timber,  it  is  the  practice  to  cut  the  trees  at  a  height  of 
several  feet  above  the  ground.  A  form  of  scaffold  must  be  pro- 
vided for  notching  and  felling  large  timber  and  for  this  purpose 
spring  boards  are  generally  used.  In  redwood  logging  where 
trees  of  very  large  size  are  cut  the  spring  board  may  be  replaced 
by  a  scaffold  supported  either  on  spring  boards  or  timbers. 

FELLING 

With  the  Ax.  —  The  ax  was  used  almost  exclusively  as  a  felling 
tool  during  the  early  period  of  logging  in  the  United  States  and 
is  still  used  extensively  for  small  trees.  In  felling  with  an  ax, 
the  operation  begins  by  cutting  a  wedge-shaped  notch  opposite 
and  slightly  higher  than  the  undercut.  This  cut  is  continued 
towards  the  center  of  the  bole  until  the  tree  falls.  Wedges  can- 
not be  used  in  felling  with  the  ax,  therefore,  it  is  more  difficult  to 
throw  a  tree  in  any  direction  except  that  in  which  it  leans.  It  is 
estimated  that  from  10  to  20  board  feet  per  tree  of  spruce  is  lost 
when  the  ax  is  used  exclusively  for  felling  and  log-making. 

With  the  Ax  and  Saw.  —  This  method  is  now  almost  univer- 
sally used  for  medium  and  large  timber  because  a  loss  of  both 
time  and  wood  occurs  in  using  the  ax  alone.  The  use  of  a  cross- 
cut saw  increases  by  about  10  per  cent  the  number  of  trees  a 
given  saw  crew  can  fell  in  a  day. 

The  saw-cut  is  started  on  a  level  with  or  slightly  above  and 
opposite  the  undercut.  When  the  saw  has  buried  itself,  wooden 
or  iron  wedges  are  driven  in  behind  it  to  prevent  binding.     As 


94  LOGGING 

sawing  proceeds  the  wedge  point  is  made  to  follow  the  back  of 
the  saw  by  occasional  blows.  Sawing  in  a  direction  parallel 
with  the  undercut  progresses  until  the  tree  begins  to  fall,  where- 
upon one  sawyer  withdraws  the  saw  and  both  seek  a  place  of 
safety.  On  very  large  timber  fallers  first  saw  deeply  .on  both 
sides  of  the  undercut,  then  saw  around  the  tree,  making  the  last 
cut  on  the  back  side  of  the  bole  parallel  to  the  undercut. 

Trees  with  rotten  hearts  require  different  treatment  from 
sound  ones  because  the  decayed  bole  is  apt  to  give  away  before  it 
is  severed  from  the  stump.  A  cut  a  few  inches  deep  is  made 
around  the  tree  and  then  the  bole  is  severed  from  the  rear  as  in 
felling  sound  timber.  Even  if  the  bole  gives  away  before  the  cut 
is  completed  it  seldom  splits  badly.  Felling  during  high  winds 
is  accomplished  in  the  same  manner.  The  direction  of  fall  under 
either  of  the  above  circumstances  often  cannot  be  determined 
accurately,  and  the  work  is  considered  hazardous. 

When  timber  is  felled  in  a  direction  other  than  that  in  which 
it  leans  the  faller  leaves  the  most  wood  between  the  saw-cut  and 
the  undercut  on  the  side  opposite  to  that  in  which  the  tree  leans. 
This  tends  to  pull  the  tree  in  the  desired  direction. 

STUMP    HEIGHTS 

There  is  no  rule  other  than  a  commercial  one  regulating 
stump  heights  in  different  sections  of  the  countr}^  Loggers  in 
early  days  cut  very  high  stumps  in  order  to  avoid  root  swelling, 
pitchy  butts  and  other  defects. 

The  greatest  waste  from  this  source  occurred  in  the  Pacific 
Coast  forests  where  stumps  sometimes  from  15  to  18  feet  high 
were  left  by  the  early  logging  operators.  Twelve  thousand  feet 
of  merchantable  timber  per  acre  was  not  an  excessive  amount  to 
be  wasted  in  this  manner.  At  the  present  time  sound  stumps 
seldom  exceed  3  or  4  feet  in  height.  Coniferous  species,  hke 
western  larch,  often  are  so  pitchy  in  the  butt  that  from  4  to  6  feet 
must  be  left  in  the  stump  when  the  timber  is  to  be  transported 
by  water.  In  the  yellow  pine  forests  of  the  South  the  stumps 
are  cut  from  16  to  24  inches  high;  in  the  spruce  region  of  the 
Northeast  they  are  often  from  12  to  15  inches. 


FELLING   AND    LOG-MAKING  95 

The  tendency  in  all  sections  is  to  reduce  the  height  of  stump 
on  sound  timber  to  the  lowest  point  practicable.  It  is  not 
profitable  to  cut  a  low  stump  on  most  species  when  the  butt  is 
rotten,  because  a  large  portion  of  it  may  be  trimmed  off  and 
thrown  away  during  the  process  of  manufacture.  Saws  cannot 
be  kept  as  sharp  on  very  low  stumps  as  on  those  of  medium  height 
since  grit  dulls  the  saw,  especially  in  a  sandy  soil.  Sawyers 
cutting  very  low  stumps  cannot  cut  as  much  timber  per  day 
because  the  work  is  more  fatiguing.  The  decrease  in  the  cut 
of  a  saw  crew  due  to  low  stumps  may  reach  1 5  per  cent  in  medium- 
sized  timber. 

The  general  rule  on  the  National  Forests  is  that  the  stumps 
shall  not  exceed  18  inches  in  height.  Lower  stumps  may  be 
required  at  the  discretion  of  the  inspectors.  The  stump  height 
on  slopes  should  be  determined  at  the  contour  line. 

LOG-MAKING 

Utilization  of  the  Tree.  —  The  bole  is  the  most  valuable  portion 
of  the  tree  except  in  such  instances  as  the  curly  stumps  of  black 
walnut  and  other  species  which  are  highly  esteemed  for  cabinet 
work.  In  many  localities  rough  tops  and  limbs  are  cut  to  a 
diameter  of  from  2  to  4  inches  for  firewood,  charcoal  burning  and 
destructive  distillation.  Faggots  are  not  utilized  to  any  extent 
in  this  country. 

The  portion  of  the  bole  utihzed  is  influenced  by  the  location 
of  the  timber  with  reference  both  to  the  manufacturing  plant 
and  to  markets.  The  lumberman  with  accessible  timber  may  be 
able  to  handle  low-grade  logs  which  an  operator  with  a  less 
favorable  location  could  not  handle  profitably. 

The  transportation  charge  for  carrying  lumber  to  markets 
is  also  a  powerful  factor  in  determining  the  extent  of  utilization, 
inasmuch  as  all  grades  of  a  given  species  pay  the  same  rate  and 
where  the  latter  is  high,  low  grades  cannot  be  shipped  at  a  profit. 
An  interesting  example  is  that  of  the  shortleaf  and  longleaf 
pines  of  the  South.  Both  species  are  usually  sold  at  the  same 
price  f.o.b.  at  a  given  mill,  but  since  longleaf  weighs  more  per 


96  LOGGING 

thousand  feet,  in  some  cases  300  pounds  on  a  given  item,  the 
freight  charge  to  market  is  greater  and  hence  shortleaf  can  be 
shipped  to  more  distant  markets,  or  a  lower  average  grade  can 
be  manufactured  and  the  same  profits  secured  as  in  the  case  of 
longleaf. 

Crooks,  knots,  pitch,  worm  holes  and  other  defects  are  factors 
that  influence  the  amount  of  bole  taken.  The  extent  and  char- 
acter of  the  defects  that  a  log  may  contain  and  still  be  mer- 
chantable is  governed  by  the  species  and  the  use  to  which  the 
timber  is  to  be  put.  Chestnut  lumber  containing  many  "pin- 
worm  holes"  has  a  market  value  both  for  veneer  backing  and 
for  the  manufacture  of  tanning  extract  if  the  timber  is  otherwise 
sound.  On  the  other  hand,  oak  with  similar  defects  brings  a  low 
price  because  its  physical  properties  do  not  fit  it  for  many  pur- 
poses. Defective  logs  of  white  pine,  yellow  poplar  and  other 
woods  suitable  for  making  high-priced  box  material  may  be 
utihzed  because  the  lumber  is  cut  into  short  lengths  and  the 
unsound  portions  eliminated,  while  logs  of  yellow  pine  with 
similar  or  fewer  defects  are  frequently  valueless  for  this  purpose 
because  the  wood  is  heavy,  making  higher  freight  charges  on  the 
package,  and  yellow  pine  crates,  when  placed  in  cold  storage, 
taint  dairy  products,  eggs  and  certain  other  foodstuffs. 

The  amount  of  bole  taken  depends  on  the  ultimate  use  of 
the  timber.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  cutting  white  oak  for 
rived  stave  bolts  which  are  split  along  the  line  of  the  medullary 
rays.  Since  the  timber  must  be  straight-grained  and  free  from 
knots,  only  the  choicest  cuts  are  taken  and  a  large  part  of  the 
bole  is  often  left  in  the  forest. 

Market  conditions  are  a  potent  factor  in  regulating  the  mini- 
mum size  and  character  of  timber  that  can  be  handled  profitably. 
High-grade  logs  produce  a  sufficient  percentage  of  low-grade 
lumber  to  supply  a  dull  market,  while  a  brisk  demand  enables 
the  logger  to  bring  out  a  large  per  cent  of  his  inferior  material 
because  it  can  be  sold  for  enough  to  cover  the  cost  of  manufac- 
ture and  yield  a  small  profit.  Close  utiHzation  will  not  be 
general  until  the  public  is  prepared  to  pay  higher  prices  for 
lumber. 


FELLING  AND   LOG-MAKING  97 

Log  Lengths.  —  Builders  consider  even  lengths  of  from  10  to  24 
feet  most  advantageous  and  these  have  come  to  be  recognized  in 
lumber  markets  as  standard.  Mills  handling  small-  and  medium- 
sized  timber,  which  is  skidded  by  animals,  cut  their  logs  into 
the  above  lengths  in  the  forest,  while  those  manufacturing  long 
timbers  or  using  power  skidding  machines  either  bring  in  logs 
varying  from  24  to  60  feet  in  length  or  the  entire  bole  to  a  top 
diameter  of  from  4  to  6  inches.  These  logs  may  be  cut  into 
shorter  lengths  at  the  railroad  or  landing  but  delivery  at  the  mill 
of  long  logs  or  entire  boles  is  considered  more  desirable  since  it 
precludes  a  loss  in  crooked  timber  by  improper  division  in  the 
forest.  An  experienced  man  at  the  mill  can  cut  the  boles  into 
log  lengths  more  rapidly  and  economically  with  a  power  machine 
than  can  the  sawyer  in  the  woods  using  a  cross-cut  saw,  and 
special  orders  for  unusual  lengths  can  be  filled  without  loss  of 
time. 

Logs  to  be  rafted  down  large  streams  should  be  cut  into 
long  lengths  because  the  raft  can  be  built  stronger  and 
cheaper. 

The  transportation  of  long  logs  out  of  the  forest  is  destructive 
to  young  growth  because  their  length  requires  considerable 
swamping  for  animal  transportation,  and  when  a  ground  system 
of  power  skidding  is  used  a  large  amount  of  young  growth  is 
broken  or  bruised  before  the  log  reaches  the  run  down  which  it 
passes  to  the  machine. 

The  "board"  mills  in  the  yellow  pine  region  cut  logs  into 
standard  lengths,  a  large  percentage  being  12,  14  and  16  feet. 
The  "timber"  mills  cut  longer  logs  to  meet  their  special  re- 
quirements. 

Cypress  operators  who  railroad  their  timber  to  the  mill  cut 
logs  into  standard  lengths  between  10  and  20  feet.  On  pull- 
boat  operations  where  logs  are  floated  to  the  mill  the  whole  trunk 
or  30-  to  50-foot  logs  are  skidded. 

Hardwood  logs  rafted  down  the  Ohio  River  and  other  large 
streams  are  cut  into  lengths  of  from  40  to  60  feet,  while  on  small 
streams  and  on  railroad  operations  standard  length  logs  are  the 
rule. 


98  LOGGING 

In  the  Adirondacks  spruce  logs  which  are  to  be  manufac- 
tured into  lumber  are  largely  cut  into  lengths  of  lo,  12,  13,  14 
and  16  feet,  and  those  for  pulp  manufacture  into  even  lengths 
of  14  feet  or  more.  In  Maine  spruce  is  cut  either  into  standard 
lengths,  or  the  butt  cut  is  made  from  30  to  40  feet  long  and  the 
remainder  left  in  a  top  log  which  is  taken  to  a  diameter  of  4  or 
5  inches. 

White  pine  is  largely  cut  into  standard  lengths. 

Douglas  lir  on  the  Pacific  Coast  is  cut  into  logs  ranging  in 
length  from  24  to  60  feet  and  sometimes  longer.  The  customary 
lengths  range  up  to  40  feet  with  a  high  percentage  of  32-foot  logs. 
Fir  is  well  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  long  timbers,  and 
supplies  a  large  share  of  the  demand  for  such  material. 

In  the  redwood  region  about  one-fourth  of  the  logs  are  cut 
16  feet  long.  The  remainder  are  cut  into  lengths  of  18,  20,  24, 
32  and  40  feet.  The  longer  lengths  are  cut  from  the  smaller 
trees. 

Method. — The  first  step  in  log-making  is  to  cut  the  limbs 
from  that  portion  of  the  bole  which  is  to  be  utilized.  This  is 
done  with  an  ax  by  a  member  of  the  saw  crew  or  by  a  special 
man  called  a  swamper,  knotter  or  limber.  The  bole  is  then 
laid  off  into  log  lengths  by  the  head  sawyer  or  by  the  "chipper" 
who  uses  an  8-foot  or  lo-foot  measuring  stick. 

In  log-making  there  are  several  problems  which  the  workmen 
must  solve  depending  on  the  position  of  the  felled  tree. 

(i)  When  the  log  lies  flat  on  the  ground,  bucking-up  is  a 
simple  matter  as  the  sa\v\-ers  start  their  cut  on  the  lower  or 
upper  part  of  the  bole  at  the  marked  point  and  continue  until 
the  log  is  severed  from  the  bole.  When  the  saw  begins  to  bind 
wedges  are  driven  into  the  cut  and  made  to  follow  the  saw  by 
an  occasional  blow  from  an  ax  or  maul. 

(2)  When  the  bole  is  supported  at  one  end,  care  must  be 
exercised  to  avoid  splitting  slabs  from  the  under  side.  This  is 
accomplished  by  making  a  cut  2  or  3  inches  deep  on  the  under 
side  of  the  bole.  In  addition  the  log  may  have  its  free  end  sup- 
ported by  a  false  work  of  logs,  or  by  a  heavy  stick  placed  in  a 
vertical  position  directly  under  it.     The  saw-cut  is  then  started 


FELLING   AND   LOG-MAKING  99 

on  the  upper  face  and  continued  until  the  log  breaks  off  from 
its  own  weight. 

(3)  When  the  bole  is  supported  at  both  ends  the  cut  is 
usually  started  on  the  under  side  and  continued  until  it  ex- 
tends one-half  or  two-thirds  of  the  distance  through  the  log. 
A  cut  is  then  started  on  the  upper  side  of  the  bole  and  con- 
tinued until  the  log  is  severed.  The  bole  is  often  supported  by 
heavy  sticks  placed  in  a  vertical  position  under  both  sides  of 
the  cut. 

(4)  When  the  bole  is  sprung  between  trees  or  stumps  the 
general  practice  is  to  make  a  deep  cut  on  the  concave  face  and 
then  to  saw  or  chop  on  the  outer  face.  Caution  is  required 
where  trees  are  badly  strained  because  they  may  break  with 
considerable  force  and  injure  the  workmen. 

In  small-  and  medium-sized  timber  it  is  generally  the  duty 
of  the  felling  crew  to  cut  the  bole  into  logs  as  soon  as  the  tree 
has  been  felled.  An  exception  to  this  occurs  where  the  bark  of 
trees  such  as  hemlock,  chestnut  oak  and  tanbark  oak  are  sought 
for  tanning  purposes.  In  this  case  the  felling  of  the  trees  and 
the  stripping  of  the  bark  are  done  by  a  crew  whose  work  may 
precede  the  actual  logging  operation  by  several  weeks.  Log- 
making  under  these  circumstances  is  often  done  by  a  separate 
crew. 

Log-making  in  the  large  timber  of  the  Pacific  Coast  has  been 
developed  along  special  lines.  The  large  size  of  the  timber 
prevents  the  use  of  a  two-man  crew  unless  a  scaffold  is  constructed 
on  which  the  men  can  stand.  This  is  not  necessary  because  one 
man  with  a  7-  to  9-foot  single-handled  saw  can  cut  logs  to  ad- 
vantage by  standing  on  the  ground.  He  starts  his  cut  with  the 
saw  at  an  angle  and  gradually  brings  it  towards  the  horizontal 
as  it  nears  the  bottom  of  the  log.  Thick-barked  timber  requires 
special  preparation  before  bucking-up  because  the  bark  is  a  great 
hindrance  to  the  bucker.  The  practice  in  redwood  forests  is  to 
remove  the  bark  from  the  log  and  when  the  refuse  is  dry  to  burn 
over  the  area.  Bucking-up  is  then  carried  on  by  one  man  as 
described.  The  bark  on  Douglas  fir  logs  tends  to  dull  the  saw 
and  is  removed  along  the  line  of  the  saw-cut. 


lOO  LOGGING 

Wedges  are  used  to  keep  the  saw  from  binding  and  kerosene 
is  applied  to  the  saw  blade  when  necessary  to  free  it  from 
pitch. 

The  equipment  used  for  felling  and  log-making  in  medium- 
sized  timber  consists  of  a  cross-cut  saw,  6^  feet  long,  with  two 
detachable  handles;  a  double-bitted  or  single-bitted  ax;  two  or 
more  wooden  or  iron  wedges;  a  measuring  stick;  a  bottle  of 
kerosene;  and  possibly  a  wooden  maul  or  a  sledge  for  driving 
wedges. 

Similar  equipment  is  used  for  large  timber  but  the  saws  range 
in  length  from  8  to  i8  feet.  Spring  boards  are  also  required 
where  high  stumps  are  cut. 

Power  Bucking.  —  In  the  sugar  pine  forests  of  California  hand 
bucking  is  sometimes  supplemented  by  the  use  of  the  power- 
driven  "steam  dago."^  The  engine  is  moved  under  its  own 
power  to  the  vicinity  of  the  felled  trees  which  are  to  be  cut  into 
logs.  A  saw  frame  and  saw  are  adjusted  at  the  cutting  point 
on  the  bole,  the  saw  is  then  started  and  left  to  work  automati- 
cally while  two  other  frames  are  being  adjusted  at  other  cuts. 
Saws  are  run  at  about  150  strokes  per  minute. 

A  swamping  crew  precedes  the  saw  crew  and  trims  the  felled 
trees,  throwing  the  brush  to  one  side  to  give  room  for  the  ma- 
chines. There  is  a  decided  economy  both  of  time  and  labor  in 
the  use  of  the  compressed-air  machine.  Nine  men  are  required 
to  operate  it  and  the  daily  capacity  is  from  125,000  to  140,000 
board  feet,  with  a  maximum  output  under  favorable  circum- 
stances of  160,000  feet.  From  fifteen  to  seventeen  men  would 
be  required  to  secure  the  same  output  with  hand  labor,  and  the 
labor  charge  would  considerably  exceed  the  cost  of  operation  and 
maintenance  of  the  machine.  Some  difficulty  is  experienced  in 
operating  during  cold  weather  because  the  moisture  freezes  on 
the  cylinder  and  piston  and  interferes  with  the  action  of  the 
latter. 

The  endless  chain  saw^  is  used  to  cut  logs  into  shingle-bolt 
lengths  in  the  redwood  forest  region  and  also  to  cross-cut  logs 
at   the  mill.     It  is  especially  adapted  for    the   former  work, 

1  See  page  79. 


FELLING   AND   LOG-MAKING  lOI 

where  very  large  timber  is  to  be  cut  into  short  lengths, 
because  several  cuts  can  be  made  at  each  set-up  of  the 
machine. 

WASTE    IN    LOG-MAKING  ^ 

Inefficient  saw  crews  under  improper  supervision  often  cause 
a  waste  of  timber  by  careless  selection  of  log  lengths. 

Crooks.  —  Waste  nearl}-  always  occurs  in  the  division  of 
crooked  boles.  Crooks  are  more  serious  in  small  than  in  large 
timber  because  the  percentage  of  loss  in  slabbing  at  the  mill  is 
much  greater.  Pronounced  sweeps  should  be  cut  from  the  bole 
and  left  in  the  woods  and  where  the  crook  is  not  deep  it  should  be 
left  on  the  end  of  the  log  where  there  will  be  the  minimum  loss  in 
manufacture.  Crooked  logs  are  more  expensive  to  handle  both 
in  the  forest  and  at  the  mill  than  straight  logs  of  the  same  diam- 
eter and  length  because  more  time  is  required  to  skid,  to  load  on 
to  the  log  cars  and  to  handle  them  in  the  mill,  and  the  actual 
output  secured  is  often  from  20  to  75  per  cent  less. 

Forked  Trees.  —  Another  source  of  waste  is  the  cutting  up  of 
forked  trees.     The  chief  faults  of  the  sawyers  in  this  regard  are: 

(i)  Felling  the  tree  so  that  the  lower  fork  is  either  imbedded 
in  the  ground  or  so  placed  that  it  is  difficult  to  saw  it  properly. 
The  line  of  least  resistance  is  followed  and  the  lower  fork  is  left 
or  a  portion  of  it  sacrificed.     (Fig.  24.) 

(2)  Cutting  too  far  below  the  fork,  thereb}'  wasting  mer- 
chantable material. 

(3)  Cutting  too  far  above  the  crotch,  as  shown  in  Fig.  24. 
The  bole  should  have  been  cut  close  up  on  both  sides  of  the  crotch 
and  the  short  section  left  in  the  woods. 

It  is  unprofitable  to  bring  logs  with  big  forks  to  a  mill  because 
the  yield  of  lumber  from  them  is  not  in  proportion  to  the  cost 
of  production.  Forked  logs  require  from  two  to  fifteen  times 
longer  to  get  into  the  mill  and  to  be  sawed  into  lumber  than  do 
straight  logs  of  the  same  diameter  and  length,  and  the  yield  from 
them  is  often  from  20  to  50  per  cent  less.     A  further  loss  is 

""  See  Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine,  by  H.  H.  Chapman  and  R.  C. 
Bryant.     Yale  University  Press,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1913. 


I02  LOGGING 

occasioned  by  the  reduction  of  the  mill  output  because  of  the 
additional  time  spent  on  sawing  such  logs. 

Improper  Trimming  Lengths.  —  Sufhcient  attention  is  not  paid 
to  the  length  into  which  logs  are  cut.  They  should  be  a  few 
inches  longer  than  the  standard  because  in  sawing  large  logs  it 
may  be  impracticable  for  the  sawyers  to  cut  exactly  at  right 
angles  to  the  length  and,  further,  logs  are  often  damaged  on  the 
ends  in  skidding  and  in  transit  to  the  mill.  This  extra  length  is 
trimmed  off  in  the  mill  and  gives  a  straight,  bright  end  on  each 


Fig.  24.  —  A  Forked  Tree  cut  in  a  Wasteful  Manner. 


board.  Three  inches  are  regarded  as  sufficient  for  a  log  16 
inches  and  under  in  diameter  and  4  inches  for  those  of  greater 
diameter. 

Workmen  become  careless  and  often  do  not  cut  50  per  cent  of 
the  logs  of  the  proper  length.  Where  less  than  2  inches  is  left 
for  trimming  length,  the  board  is  usually  reduced  2  feet  in  length 
at  the  mill,  while  on  boards  that  are  several  inches  too  long  the 
loss  is  also  great.  Inaccuracy  in  measurements  is  due  to  careless 
marking  with  the  stick  and  to  the  use  of  a  measure  shortened 
by  accidentally  chipping  off  the  end  with  the  marker's  ax. 


FELLING   AND    LOG-i\L\KING  103 

The  result  of  measuring  1000  logs  on  the  skidway  of  a  southern 
yellow  pine  operation  showed  that  only  426  logs  were  of  the 
proper  length,  while  240  were  too  short  and  333  were  from  i 
to  II  inches  too  long.  The  excess  on  the  ends  of  several  logs 
was  often  sufficient  to  have  secured  an  additional  2  feet  of  mer- 
chantable material  had  the  bole  been  carefuljy  divided. 

Disregard  of  Quality.  —  Log-makers  frequently  do  not  give 
sufficient  attention  to  securing  quality  as  well  as  quantity. 
Where  timber  has  large  limbs  the  general  practice  is  to  leave  the 
greater  part  of  the  tops  in  the  woods  because  lumber  of  low  grade 
only  can  be  secured. from  them.  Log-makers  frequently  exercise 
poor  judgment  in  cutting  trees  into  logs  and  often  fail  to  appor- 
tion the  bole  so  that  the  best  portion  and  the  knotty  portion  are 
kept  in  separate  logs.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  from  6  to  10 
feet  of  clear  bole  put  into  a  log  with  several  Hnear  feet  of  knotty 
material.  This  pohcy  is  costly  because  the  value  of  the  log  is 
largely  determined  by  its  poorest  section.  The  universal  rule 
should  be  to  divide  the  bole  so  that  the  clear  material  will  be 
kept  separate  from  the  rough  and  defective.  It  may  often  prove 
more  profitable  to  waste  a  few  feet  of  rough  log  if  by  so  doing  the 
amount  of  high-grade  lumber  can  be  increased. 


Fig.  25.  —  Waste  in  a  Top  resulting  from  an  Improper  Selection  of  Log 
Lengths. 

Waste.  —  One  form  of  waste  commonly  observed  is  shown 
in  Fig.  25.  Log-makers  seldom  go  above  points  where  one  or 
more  large  limbs  project  out  on  one  side  (see  X) .  If  the  log  is 
15  or  more  inches  in  diameter  and  one  side  is  free  from  knots, 
the  cut  should  be  extended  2  or  4  feet  further  up  the  tree,  say  to 
"Y,"  if  that  distance  gives  the  proper  log  length.  The  lower 
side  will  yield  clear  lumber  free  from  knots  and  cannot  in  any 
way  depreciate  the  value  of  the  log  content,  while  the  lumber- 


I04  LOGGING 

man  secures  the  additional  material  on  the  good  half  of  the  log 
which  otherwise  would  be  wasted.  If  necessary,  the  portion 
containing  the  large  knots  can  be  cut  off  in  the  mill  by  the 
trimmer. 

A  loss  usually  occurs  in  cutting  broken  timber  into  logs  by 
making  the  saw-cut  too  far  below  the  break.  Where  the  break 
is  not  square  across  it  is  often  possible  to  obtain  added  material 
by  cutting  the  log  so  as  to  include  a  portion  of  the  broken  end. 
This  should  always  be  done  on  large  timber  where  the  extra 
section  that  can  be  secured  is  at  least  equal  to  one-half  the  diam- 
eter of  the  log. 

One  of  the  most  extensive  wastes  occurs  in  the  tops  when  all 
of  the  merchantable  material  below  the  larger  limbs  has  not  been 
utilized.  Sections  of  good  timber  from  one  to  several  feet  in 
length  and  of  a  quality  equal  to  that  taken  are  often  left,  usually 
because  the  log-makers  did  not  exercise  judgment  in  dividing 
the  bole  into  the  most  economic  log  lengths.  The  loss  from  this 
source  often  runs  from  3.5  to  5  per  cent  of  the  total  merchantable 
stand  and  the  annual  loss  on  large  operations  amounts  to  thou- 
sands of  dollars,  although  it  could  be  corrected  by  proper  super- 
vision. 

Close  utilization  of  the  kind  mentioned  does  not  require  the 
operator  to  take  material  that  he  does  not  consider  merchant- 
able. A  system  by  which  timber  is  cut  for  quahty  as  well  as 
quantity  means  an  increase  in  the  percentage  of  the  higher  grades, 
more  timber  per  acre  and  prolonged  life  to  the  operation. 

BARKING    OR    ROSSING 

Where  logs  of  large  size  are  skidded  on  dry  ground,  the  bark 
on  the  lower  side  is  frequently  removed  to  reduce  friction. 
This  is  termed  "barking"  or  "rossing."  During  a  wet  season  or 
when  power  is  used  for  skidding,  rossing  is  frequently  omitted. 

In  the  Northeast  the  ends  of  long  logs  that  are  being  yarded 
on  drag  sleds  are  sometimes  rossed  on  the  under  side  when  the 
road  is  either  level  or  upgrade,  or  the  dragging  hard. 

In  the  Pacific  Coast  forests  during  the  season  when  the  bark 
does  not  peel  readily,  the  work  is  done,  usually  with  a  broad- 


FELLING   AND   LOG-MAKING  105 

ax,  by  a  special  member  of  the  logging  crew.  During  other 
seasons  a  "spud"  or  peeler  may  be  used. 

In  other  sections  of  the  country  only  the  largest  logs  are 
rossed.  The  work  is  generally  done  with  an  ax  by  a  member  of 
the  swamping  crew.  On  heavy  timber  the  barker  not  only 
removes  the  bark  but  also  straightens  slight  crooks  by  cutting 
off  sufficient  wood  to  flatten  the  log  so  that  when  dragged,  it 
will  remain  in  proper  position. 

Spruce  logs  intended  for  pulp  manufacture  are  sometimes 
entirely  rossed  in  the  forest  because  there  is  less  wood  wasted 
than  when  the  work  is  done  by  machinery  at  the  mill. 

Redwood  logs  are  always  rossed  in  the  forest  before  the  boles 
are  made  into  logs  because  the  thickness  of  the  bark  and  its 
rough  character  not  only  impede  log-making  but  are  also  a 
hindrance  in  transportation. 


Previous  to  skidding,  the  forward  end  of  a  large  log  is  "sniped " 
or  "nosed."  This  consists  of  rounding  oft'  the  under  side  of 
the  log  so  that  it  will  not  catch  on  obstructions.  Where  the 
ground  is  rough  and  the  log  is  likely  to  roll  over,  the  entire  front 
end  is  sniped.  This  work  may  be  done  by  a  sniper  or  by  one 
of  the  swampers.  The  sniper  generally  prefers  an  ax  with  a  5- 
to  6-pound  head. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE  TO  CHAPTER  VII 

Braniff,  Edward  A.:  Grades  and  Amounts  of  Lumber  Sawed  from  Yellow 
Poplar,  Yellow  Birch,  Sugar  Maple  and  Beech.  Bui.  No.  73,  U.  S.  For. 
Ser.,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1906,  pp.  20-21. 

Gary,  Austin:  Practical  Forestry  on  a  Spruce  Tract  in  Maine.  Cir.  131, 
U.  S.  Forest  Service,  pp.  5-6. 

Chapman,  H.  H.,  and  Bryant,  R.  C.:  Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine. 
Yale  University  Press,  Bui.  2,  Yale  Forest  School,  New  Haven,  Conn., 
1913- 

Clapp,  Earle  H.:  Conservative  Logging.  Report  of  the  National  Conserva- 
tion Commission  with  accompanying  papers,  1909,  pp.  512-546. 

Graves,  Henry  S.:  Practical  Forestry  in  the  Adirondacks.  Bui.  No.  26, 
U.  S.  Div.  of  For.,  Washington,  D.  C,  1899,  pp.  57-60. 

Hedgecock,  George  Grant:  Studies  upon  some  Chromogenic  Fungi  which 
discolor  Wood.  Missouri  Botanical  Garden,  Seventeenth  z\nnual  Report, 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1906,  pp.  59-114. 


I06  LOGGING 

Hopkins,  A.  D.:  Practical  Information  on  the  Scolytid  Beetles  of  North 
American  Forests.  I.  Barkbeetles  of  the  Genus  Dendroctonus.  Bui. 
No.  83,  Part  I,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology,  1909. 

:    Insect  Injuries  to  Forest  Products.     U.  S.  Department 

of  Agriculture,  Yearbook,  1904,  pp.  381-398. 

:   Pinhole  Injury  to  Girdled  Cypress  in  the  South  Atlantic 


and  Gulf  States.     Cir.  82,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology,  1907. 

Peters,  J.  Girvin:  Waste  in  Logging  Southern  Yellow  Pine.  Yearbook  of 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1905,  pp.  483-494. 

ScHRENK,  Hermann  von:  The  Bluing  and  Red  Rot  of  the  Western  Yellow- 
Pine  with  special  reference  to  the  Black  Hills  Forest  Reserve.  Bui.  No.  36, 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  1903. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

MEASUREMENT  OF  LOGS  AND  OTHER  FOREST  PRODUCTS 

UNITS    OF    MEASUREMENT 

The  common  method  of  measuring  the  contents  of  logs  is  by 
the  board  foot,  although  volume  standards  are  also  in  use. 

Firewood,  acid  wood,  pulp  wood,  excelsior  wood,  stave  bolts, 
spool  wood  and  novelty  wood  are  ordinarily  measured  by  the 
cord  (page  114).  Some  products  such  as  hoop  poles  are  sold  by 
the  hundred  or  thousand  pieces;  posts  and  poles  are  measured 
by  the  linear  foot,  thousand  board  feet,  or  piece;  shake  and 
shingle-bolt  material  either  by  the  cord  or  by  the  thousand  board 
feet;  mine  timber  by  the  piece,  linear  foot  or  board  measure; 
crossties  by  the  piece  or  thousand  board  feet. 

Cubic  measure  is  occasionally  used  in  some  parts  of  the  coun- 
try- for  the  measurement  of  high-priced  vehicle  woods,  fancy 
hardwoods,  red  cedar  pencil  stock,  pulpwood  and,  in  the  South, 
for  export  timbers. 

The  metric  system  was  adopted  in  the  Philippine  Islands  some 
years  ago,  but  it  is  not  used  in  the  United  States. 

BOARD    MEASURE 

Although  board  measure  is  designed  primarily  for  the  measure- 
ment of  sawed  lumber  it  is  also  a  common  method  for  expressing 
the  volume  of  logs.  When  used  for  this  purpose  it  does  not  show 
the  actual  contents  of  the  log  but  the  estimated  amount  of 
sawed  lumber  that  sound,  straight  logs  of  specified  lengths  and 
diameters  will  yield. 

The  board  foot  is  a  section  12  inches  square  and  i  inch  in 
thickness.  Although  it  is  based  on  a  thickness  of  i  inch,  in  prac- 
tice it  is  applied  to  sawed  material  greater  than  i  inch  in  thick- 
ness, the  contents  being  in  proportion  to  their  relation  to  the 
unit.     In  most  sections  lumber  is  cut  scant  in  thickness  and 

IC7 


I08  LOGGING 

width,  a  practice  now  recognized  by  the  Courts.  A  large  per- 
centage of  construction  lumber  is  surfaced,  and  the  basis  of 
measurement  is  the  size  of  the  rough  board  from  which  it  is 
manufactured.  In  many  regions  the  required  thickness  of 
i-inch  lumber  surfaced  on  one  or  two  sides  is  ||  of  an  inch, 
although  in  some  sections  it  is  ||  or  -j|  of  an  inch.  The  widths 
vary  with  the  character  of  the  product  and  the  width  of 
the  board;  for  example,  the  size  of  a  so-called  2-inch  by  4- 
inch  scantling,  surfaced  on  one  side  and  one  edge,  which  is 
standard  with  manufacturers,  is  if  inches  by  3I  inches,  while  a 
2-inch  by  12-inch  plank,  surfaced  on  one  side  and  one  edge,  is 
if  inches  by  11^  inches.  One-inch  flooring  and  like  products 
are  usually  surfaced  to  ^ |  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  2 j  inches, 
3I  inches  and  5I  inches  in  width,  exclusive  of  the  tongue.  The 
buyer  pays  for  the  rough  lumber  from  which  the  finished  product 
was  made,  namely,  for  a  3-inch,  4-inch  or  6-inch  rough  board, 
and  the  purchase  of  1000  feet  of  such  material  secures  a  quantity 
which  covers  750,  812  and  916  square  feet,  respectively,  if  there 
is  no  waste  in  laying. 

The  reasons  which  have  led  to  the  custom  are  the  saving  in 
timber  effected  by  the  manufacturer,  and  the  impossibility  of 
cutting  all  boards  of  exactly  the  same  width  and  thickness. 
The  latter  would  be  useless,  even  if  possible,  because  of  the 
uneven  shrinkage  in  seasoning  of  boards  of  a  given  size,  and 
lumber  scant  in  thickness  is  fully  as  serviceable  for  the  majority 
of  purposes  as  it  would  be  if  manufactured  full  thickness. 

Lumber  less  than  ^1  of  an  inch  in  thickness  and  veneers  are 
usually  sold  surface  measure.  Lumber  quotations  made  on  the 
basis  of  the  thousand  feet  are  often  assumed  to  refer  to  board 
feet,  which  they  do  not  unless  so  specified. 

LOG    RULES  ^ 

Contents  of  logs  are  chiefly  calculated  in  board  feet  according 
to  some  specified  log  rule.     Many  different  rules  are  in  use  in  the 

1  For  a  detailed  discussion  of  log  rules  see  Bulletin  36,  U.  S.  Forest  Service, 
The  Woodsman's  Handbook,  by  Henry  Solon  Graves  and  E.  A.  Ziegler;  also 
Forest  Mensuration,  by  Henry  Solon  Graves.  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  New  York, 
1906. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  LOGS  AND  OTHER  FOREST  PRODUCTS       109 

United  States  and  there  is  a  wide  variance  among  them  in  the 
contents  shown  for  logs  of  a  given  size.  Some  rules  are  based  on 
mathematical  formulas ;  some  on  diagrams  which  show  the  num- 
ber of  boards  that  may  be  cut  with  an  assumed  allowance  for 
slabs  and  saw-kerf;  others  on  actual  tally  at  the  tail  of  the 
mill;  while  certain  ones  are  a  combination  of  two  of  the  above 
methods. 

Many  of  the  present  rules  were  prepared  years  ago  when 
logging  and  milling  methods  were  not  as  efficient  and  intensive 
as  they  are  to-day.  There  are  only  two  rules,  namely,  the 
International  and  the  Champlain,  which  give  results  closely 
approximating  the  sawing  contents  of  logs  and  these  are  in 
limited  use.  The  discrepancy  in  any  rule,  however,  is  not  of 
great  moment  if  its  deficiencies  are  fully  understood  by  all 
the  parties  interested  in  the  measurement  of  a  certain  lot  of 
logs. 

International  Rule}  —  This  rule  is  designed  for  the  measure- 
ment of  logs  which  are  to  be  cut  by  a  band  saw. 

The  rule  is  based  on  the  formula: 

Bf  =  0.22  D'  -  0.71  D, 

in  which  Bf  represents  the  yield  in  board  feet,  D  the  top  diam- 
eter inside  the  bark,  0.22  D^  the  contents  in  board  feet  of  a  4-foot 
section  less  a  deduction  for  saw-kerf  and  shrinkage  in  seasoning 
and  0.71  Z)  the  waste  incident  to  square  edging  and  to  normal 
crook. 

The  formula  is  based  on  the  following  principles : 

(i)    The  saw-kerf  is  |  inch. 

(2)  The  loss  from  shrinkage  and  unevenness  in  sawing  is  ^^g 
inch. 

(3)  The  minimum  board  considered  is  not  less  than  3  inches 
wide  and  contains  at  least  two  board  feet. 

(4)  The  taper  of  logs  is  |  inch  for  each  4  feet  of  length. 

(5)  The  average  crook  in  first-class  logs  is  1.5  inches  and 
does  not  exceed  4  inches  in  a  12-foot  log. 

^  A  copy  of  this  rule  is  given  in  the  Appendix. 


no  LOGGING 

The  rule  may  be  applied  where  saws  are  used  which  cut  a  kerf 
greater  or  less  than  |-inch  by  adding  or  subtracting  the  per- 
centages given  in  the  following  table: 

For  j^-inch  kerf  add  i .  3  per  cent. 

For  y\-inch  kerf  subtract  5 .  o  per  cent. 
For  |-inch  kerf  subtract  9 .  5  per  cent. 
For  j\-inch  kerf  subtract  13.6  per  cent. 
For  f-inch  kerf  subtract  17.4  per  cent. 
For  iV'nch  kerf  subtract  20.8  per  cent. 

A  test  of  this  rule  in  a  white  pine  mill  in  Canada  showed  an 
overrun  of  0.4  of  one  per  cent  on  403  logs  which  ranged  in  diam- 
eter from  6  inches  to  33  inches. 

Scribner  Rule}  —  This  rule,  which  is  the  oldest  now  in  use,  was 
constructed  from  diagrams  showing  the  number  and  size  of 
boards  that  could  be  sawed  from  logs  of  specified  diameters  after 
allowing  for  waste.  The  contents  of  these  boards  were  then  calcu- 
lated for  different  lengths  and  the  table  built  up  from  the  results. 

The  common  form  of  the  rule  now  in  use  is  called  the  Scribner 
Decimal  "C"  rule.  This  differs  from  the  original  in  that  the 
units  are  dropped  and  the  values  rounded  to  the  nearest  ten. 
Thus  ninety-seven  board  feet  would  be  written  ten,  and  ninety- 
four  board  feet,  nine.  The  original  rule  did  not  give  values 
below  12  inches  but  the  table  has  been  extended  and  now  in- 
cludes diameters  from  6  to  120  inches. 

There  are  in  use  among  lumbermen  three  different  extensions 
of  the  rule  below  12  inches,  known  as  the  Scribner  Decimal  "A," 
Scribner  Decimal  "B"  and  Scribner  Decimal  "C." 

The  Scribner  Decimal  "C"  rule  has  been  adopted  as  the 
standard  for  use  in  the  National  Forests  and  is  the  legal  rule  in 
Minnesota,  Idaho,  Wisconsin  and  West  Virginia. 

It  gives  fair  results  for  small  logs  cut  by  a  circular  saw  but 
is  too  low  for  logs  over  28  inches  in  diameter.  In  sound  logs 
the  mill  scale  overruns  the  Scribner  Decimal  ''C"  rule  by  from 
10  to  20  per  cent. 

Doyle  Rule.^  —  This  rule  is  used  in  many  sections  of  the 
country  and,  except  in  Texas,  it  is  the  common  rule  in  the  pine 

^  A  copy  of  this  rule  is  given  in  the  .Appendix. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  LOGS  AND  OTHER  FOREST  PRODUCTS      III 

forests  of  the  South.     It  is  the  legal  rule  in  Arkansas,  Florida 
and  Louisiana. 

The  Doyle  rule  is  based  on  the  formula 

.2 


(^)-' 


in  which  D  equals  the  diameter  in  inches  of  the  log  at  the  small 
end  and  L  the  length  of  the  log  in  feet.^  A  uniform  allowance  of 
4  inches  is  made  for  slab.  This  is  too  great  a  deduction  for 
small  logs  and  it  is  insufficient  for  large  ones,  consequently  the 
mill  tally  overruns  the  scale  on  small  logs  and  barely  holds  out 
on  the  large  ones. 

A  rule-of-thumb  method  for  determining  the  contents  of  logs  by 
the  Doyle  rule  is  to  subtract  4  from  the  diameter  and  square  the 
remainder.  The  result  is  the  volume  in  board  feet  of  a  16-foot 
log.  Other  lengths  are  in  proportion.  This  short-cut  method 
often  proves  of  value  to  the  field  man  since  the  contents  of  logs 
can  readily  be  determined  by  mental  calculation. 

In  southern  yellow  pine  the  mill  cut  overruns  the  log  scale 
by  from  18  to  25  per  cent. 

Doyle-Scrihner  Rule.  —  This  rule  is  used  for  scaling  hardwoods 
and  occasionally  for  southern  yellow  pine.  It  is  a  combination 
of  the  two  preceding  rules.  The  values  for  diameters  up  to  and 
including  27  inches  are  from  the  Doyle  rule  and  those  for  28 
inches  and  over  are  from  the  Scribner  rule.  This  combines  the 
lowest  values  of  each  rule,  and  is,  therefore,  not  as  accurate  as 
either  alone. 

The  Maine  or  Holland  Ruler  —  This  has  been  the  principal 
rule  in  Maine  for  many  years  and  is  not  used  elsewhere  to  any 
extent.  The  values  have  been  determined  from  diagrams  show- 
ing the  number  and  size  of  i-inch  boards,  6  inches  and  over  in 
width,  that  can  be  sawed  from  a  given  log. 

Sound  spruce  and  pine  logs  of  good  quality,  from  12  to  18  feet 

1  In  some  cases  the  published  rule  gives  results  varying  nearly  3  board  feet  from 
those  determined  by  the  use  of  the  formula.  The  discrepancies  do  not  appear  to 
bear  any  relation  to  a  definite  method  and  are  undoubtedly  due  to  errors  which 
have  crept  in  since  the  rule  was  made. 

^  A  copy  of  this  rule  is  given  in  the  Appendix. 


112  LOGGING 

in  length,  when  cut  by  a  circular  saw  which  removes  a  |-inch 
kerf,  will  yield  approximately  the  amount  of  inch-lumber  shown 
by  the  rule.^ 

It  is  regarded  as  a  satisfactory  rule  for  short  logs. 

The  Herring  or  Beaumont  Rule.  — ■  This  is  the  rule  in  common 
use  in  Texas.  The  tables  are  based  on  the  measurement  of  logs 
sawed  at  the  mill.  The  original  rule  apphed  to  logs  from  12 
to  42  inches  in  diameter  and  from  10  to  60  feet  in  length.  An 
extension  of  the  rule  down  to  6  inches  was  made  a  few  years  ago 
and  the  combination  is  known  as  the  Devant-Herring  rule. 

This  gives  higher  values  than  the  Doyle  rule  for  logs  1 5  inches 
and  under  in  diameter,  but  gives  much  lower  values  for  larger 
logs.  It  gives  results  closer  to  the  actual  sawing  contents  of 
small  logs  in  the  shortleaf-pine  belt  of  Texas  than  does  the  Doyle 
rule,  since  the  average  logs  are  less  than  15  inches  in  diameter. 

The  Nineteen-inch  Standard  Ride}  —  This  rule  is  based  on 
volume  measure,  the  unit  being  a  log  13  feet  long  and  19  inches 
in  diameter  inside  the  bark  at  the  small  end.  This  is  called  a 
"standard"  or  "market."  The  formula  for  determining  the 
volume  is 

in  which  V  equals  the  volume,  D  the  diameter  inside  the  bark  at 
the  small  end  and  L  the  length  in  feet. 

Standards  are  not  convertible  into  board  feet  by  any  common 
factor  since  the  smaller  the  log,  the  greater  the  number  of 
standards  required  to  equal  1000  board  feet.  A  converting 
factor  of  200  feet  per  standard  is  often  used,  but  it  gives  inaccu- 
rate results  since  it  requires  from  4  to  14  standards  to  yield 
1000  board  feet,  depending  on  the  diameter  and  length  of  the 
sticks. 

The  ratio  between  cords  and  standards  is  fairly  constant  for 
logs  of  equal  length.  In  the  Adirondacks  2.9  standards  are 
considered  equal  to  a  cord. 

1  See  Manual  for  Northern  Woodsmen,  by  Austin  Gary,  p.  135.  Harvard 
University,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  190Q. 

2  A  copy  of  this  rule  is  given  in  the  Appendix. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  LOGS  AND  OTHER  FOREST  PRODUCTS      II3 

This  rule  is  used  in  Northern  New  York  and  is  regarded  favor- 
ably for  the  measurement  of  pulpwood. 

TJie  New  Hampsliire  or  Blodgett  Rule}  —  This  rule  is  based  on 
a  cubic  foot  having  an  arbitrary  value  equal  to  i  .4  English  cubic 
feet.  The  unit  is  a  log  section  16  inches  in  diameter  and  i  foot 
in  length.  The  formula  for  determining  the  contents  of  a  log 
of  a  given  diameter  and  length  is 

16- 

in  which  V  is  the  volume  in  cubic  feet,  D  the  diameter  in  inches 
and  L  the  length  in  feet. 

It  is  more  satisfactory  for  pulpwood  measurement  than  for 
board  feet  because  small  logs  are  overvalued  and  large  logs  under- 
valued. When  converting  the  results  into  board  measure,  115 
cubic  feet  are  assumed  to  be  equal  to  1000  board  feet  when  the 
diameter  is  taken  at  the  middle  of  the  log,  and  106  cubic  feet 
when  the  diameter  is  taken  at  the  small  end.  It  is  impossible, 
however,  to  convert  a  volume  measure  into  board  feet  by  means 
of  a  constant  factor  because  of  the  wide  variation  in  the  relation 
between  volume  and  board  feet  when  logs  of  different  diameters 
and  lengths  are  considered.- 

The  above  rule  is  commonly  used  for  spruce  in  Maine,  New 
Hampshire  and  Vermont. 

Gohel  Cube  Rule.  —  This  is  sometimes  called  the  Big  Sandy 
rule,  and  is  largely  used  for  scahng  logs  along  the  Ohio  River  and 
tributaries  near  the  Big  Sandy  River. 

The  unit  is  a  log  section  18  inches  in  diameter  and  i  foot  long, 
which  is  assumed  to  be  the  smallest  that  will  cube  12  inches. 

The  formula  is 

^  A  copy  of  this  rule  is  given  in  the  Appendix. 

2  For  a  detailed  discussion  of  this  subject  see  The  Log  Scale  in  Theory  and 
Practice,  by  H.  D.  Tiemann,  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  American  Foresters, 
Vol.  v.,  No.  I,  pp.  18-58;  and  The  Standardizing  of  Log  Measures,  by  E.  A. 
Ziegler,  Proc.  Soc.  of  Am.  For.,  Vol.  IV,  No.  2,  pp.  172-184. 


114  LOGGING 

in  which  V  is  the  volume  in  cubes,  D  the  diameter  in  inches  and 
L  the  length  in  feet.  One  cube  is  assumed  to  be  equal  to  12 
board  feet. 

CUBIC    MEASURE 

The  chief  use  of  the  cubic  measure  is  for  the  determination  of 
the  contents  of  logs  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  bark,  are 
used  in  their  entirety,  such  as  for  pulpwood,  excelsior  wood  and 
rotary-cut  veneer  stock. 

The  methods  most  commonly  used  are  as  follows : 
Method  of  Cubing  Logs  by  the  Measurement  of  the  Length  and 
Middle  Diameter.  —  The  volume  of  a  given  log  is  determined  by 
the  formula 

V  =AL, 

in  which  V  is  the  volume  in  cubic  feet,  A  the  area  in  square  feet 
of  the  middle  cross  section  and  L  the  length  in  feet. 

This  method  is  simple  and  it  is  easy  to  secure  the  measurements 
provided  the  middle  of  the  log  can  be  reached. 

Method  of  Cubing  Logs  by  the  Measurement  of  the  Length  and 
Both  Ends.  —  This  requires  one  more  measurement  than  the 
former  and  hence  is  not  so  rapid.  It  is  adapted  for  use  where  the 
middle  diameter  cannot  be  secured. 

The  formula  for  determining  the  volume  is 

2 

in  which  V  equals  the  volume  in  cubic  feet,  B  and  b  the  area  in 
square  feet  of  the  large  and  small  ends,  respectively,  and  L  the 
length  in  feet. 

Cord  Measure.  —  The  standard  cord  contains  128  cubic  feet  of 
stacked  wood,  or  a  pile  4  feet  wide,  4  feet  high  and  8  feet  long. 
In  some  parts  of  the  country,  especially  in  the  Middle  West,  fire- 
wood is  often  sold  by  the  "rick,"  which  is  a  stack  4  feet  high,  8 
feet  long  and  usually  12  or  16  inches  wide.  A  stack  of  the 
same  height  and  length  and  24  inches  wide  is  sometimes  called 
a  "  single  cord." 

Although  a  standard  cord  contains  128  cubic  feet  of  stacked 
wood,  the  sohd  cubic  contents  are  extremely  variable,  depending 


MEASUREMENT  OF  LOGS  AND  OTHER  FOREST  PRODUCTS      115 

on  the  length,  diameter,  form,  species  and  degree  of  dryness  of 
the  sticks.^ 

(i)  Length  of  Sticks.  —  Since  sticks  are  never  entirely  smooth 
or  straight  there  are  always  spaces  between  them  when  they 
are  piled.  The  amount  of  air  space  increases  in  proportion  to 
the  length  of  the  sticks.  Thus,  assuming  a  4-foot  stick  as  stand- 
ard, i-foot  sticks  show  an  increase  in  solid  volume  of  8.3  per 
cent,  while  6-foot  sticks  show  a  decrease  of  5.5  per  cent. 

INTERDEPENDENCE   OF   THE  STICK   LENGTH  AND  THE  VOL- 
UME OF   SOLID   WOOD   PER   128   CUBIC   FEET   OF   SPACED 


Straight  sticks. 

Crooked  sticks. 

Knotty  sticks. 

Length  of 

stick,  feet. 

Volume, 

Difference, 

Volume, 

DifTerence, 

Volume, 

DifTerence, 

cubic  feet. 

per  cent. 

cubic  feet. 

per  cent. 

cubic  feet. 

per  cent. 

I 

99.81 

+  8.3 

93-47 

+  14-I 

89.60 

+  20.7 

2 

97.28 

+  5-5 

89.60 

+9-4 

84.48 

+  13-8 

3 

94.72 

+  2.8 

85.76 

+4-7 

79-36 

+  6.9 

4 

92.16 

0.0 

81.92 

0.0 

74-24 

0.0 

5 

89.60 

-2.8 

78.08 

-4-7 

69. 12 

-6.9 

6 

87.04 

-5-5 

74-24 

-9-4 

64.00 

-13.8 

Muller,  Udo:   Lehrbuch  der  Holzmesskunde,  Leipzig,  IQ02 


(2)  Diameter  of  Sticks.  —  The  smaller  the  diameter  of  the 
sticks,  the  greater  the  number  of  pieces  per  cord  and  likewise  the 
more  air  space;    therefore,  the  solid  cubic  contents  are  less. 

SOLID   CUBIC    FEET   PER    STANDARD   CORD    FOR   STICKS   OF 
DIFFERENT   DIAMETERS  i 


Diameter  of 
sticks,  inches. 

Number  of  sticks 
per  cord. 

Hardwoods. 

Softwoods. 

Mixed  hardwood 
and  softwood. 

6.80 
6.00 
4-75 
3-50 

94 
126 
20s 
378 

102.40 
94.72 
88.32 
79  36 

102.40 
98.56 
97-28 
90.88 

102.40 
96.00 
92.16 
84.48 

'  Baur,  Franz  Adolf  Gregor:  Untersuchungen  Uber  den  festgehalt  und  das  gewicht  des  schicht- 
holzes  und  der  rinde;  ausgefuhrt  vor  dem  Vereine  deutscher  forstliche  Versuchsanstatten,  Augsburg, 
i87g. 

^  For  a  detailed  discussion  see  Factors  Influencing  the  Volume  of  Wood  in  the 
Cord,  by  Raphael  Zon,  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  I,  pp.  126-133.  The  tables  on 
pages  lis  and  116  are  taken  from  this  article. 


ii6 


LOGGING 


(3)  Split  Wood.  —  Split  sticks  cannot  be  stacked  as  closely 
as  round  ones,  therefore,  the  sohd  contents  of  a  cord  of  the 
former  is  less  than  that  of  the  latter.  European  practice  shows 
that  the  solid  contents  of  a  cord  decreases  as  the  sticks,  which 
are  spHt,  increase  in  length  and  decrease  in  diameter.  Thus  a 
stack  increases  in  size  6  per  cent  when  sticks  from  3.5  to  7  inches 
in  diameter  and  21  inches  long  are  spHt  into  two  pieces;  sticks  of 
the  same  length  and  a  diameter  greater  than  7  inches  show  an  in- 
crease of  4  per  cent;  14-inch  sticks  from  3.5  to  7  inches  in  diam- 
eter show  a  gain  of  5  per  cent;  and  14-inch  sticks  of  a  greater 
diameter  than  7  inches  show  a  gain  of  2.5  per  cent. 

(4)  Form  of  Sticks.  —  Clear  boles  yield  more  solid  wood  per  ■ 
given  space  than  tops  and  branches  because  the  straighter  and 
smoother  the  sticks  the  fewer  air  spaces  there  are  between  them. 

SOLID  CUBIC  FEET  PER  STANDARD  CORD  FOR  STICKS  OF 
DIFFERENT  SIZES ^ 


Class. 

Number  of 
sticks  per  cord. 

Hardwood. 

Softwood. 

Mixed  hard- 
wood and 
softwood. 

T           (  Smooth 

Large]  Knotty 

0      11  S  Smooth 

S™'-^"]  Knotty 

104 
lOI 
162 
155 

97.28 
85.76 
92  .  16 
S3.  20 

96.00 
90.88 
92.16 

87. 04 

96.00 
88.32 
92.16 

84.48 

F.  A.  G.:  loc.  cit. 


(5)  Degree  of  Dryness.  —  Since  green  wood  shrinks  appreci- 
ably in  volume  as  it  becomes  air-dry,  the  contents  of  a  standard 
cord  of  green  wood  becomes  less  as  seasoning  progresses.  As  a 
rule,  the  shrinkage  in  volume  in  air-dried  wood  is  from  9  to  14 
per  cent  in  hardwoods,  and  from  9  to  10  per  cent  in  softwoods. 

Other  factors  influencing  the  solid  contents  are  the  methods 
of  pihng  and  fixing  the  stack,  and  the  methods  of  measurement 
used.  Practice  has  shown  that  stacks  in  excess  of  4.5  feet  in 
height  are  less  carefully  piled  because  of  the  greater  physical 
effort  required  to  place  the  wood  in  the  pile.  Further,  stacks 
held  by  one  stick  on  each  end  contain  more  solid  contents  than 
where  the  pile  is  held  in  place  by  two  or  more  sticks,  since  in 


MEASUREMENT  OF  LOGS  AND  OTHER  FOREST  PRODUCTS      117 

the  latter  case  there  is  less  opportunity  for  crooked  sticks  to 
project  beyond  the  edge  of  the  stack.  Likewise,  the  longer  the 
stack  the  greater  the  solid  contents. 

Another  factor  is  the  closeness  with  which  the  limbs  are  cut 
from  the  sticks,  for  the  rougher  the  sticks  the  more  air  space 
present. 

Stacks  are  usually  somewhat  wider  at  the  top  than  at  the  base, 
due  to  the  spread  of  the  supporting  sticks.  The  best  practice 
is  to  measure  the  stacks  midway  between  the  top  and  bottom. 

Tables  showing  the  volume  of  soHd  wood  per  standard  cord 
for  sticks  of  given  lengths  and  diameters,  and  also  the  volume 
of  solid  wood  in  stacks  4  feet  high,  8  feet  long,  and  for  sticks 
of  given  lengths  and  diameters  are  given  on  page  521  in  the 
Appendix. 

Cord  measure  is  used  chiefly  for  the  measurement  of  firewood, 
pulpwood,  excelsior  wood,  stave  bolts  and  Kke  material.  In 
the  spruce  region  of  the  Northeast  pulpwood  is  often  bought 
in  the  log  by  cord  measure,  without  stacking.  The  contents  in 
cords  are  determined  by  calipering  the  average  diameter  of  the 
log,  determining  the  length  and  then  reading  from  a  table  the 
number  of  cubic  feet  in  the  stick.  The  sum  of  the  contents  of  all 
logs  divided  by  128  gives  the  number  of  cords.  The  table  on 
page  522  in  the  Appendix  gives  the  same  results  for  unpiled  logs 
that  would  be  secured  if  the  wood  were  piled  and  measured. 


The  measurement  of  logs  to  determine  their  contents  is  termed 
scaling,  and  men  performing  the  work  are  called  scalers.  The 
scaler's  chief  tool  is  a  flat  or  square  hickory  stick  from  3  to  5  feet 
long  which  is  used  to  measure  diameters.  One  edge  is  laid  off 
in  inches,  and  at  corresponding  points  on  the  two  sides  and  the 
other  edge  are  shown  the  contents  in  board  feet  of  logs  of  various 
lengths. 

The  stick  is  usually  shod  with  metal  on  the  lower  end  to 
enable  the  scaler  to  place  the  rule  accurately.  The  heads  are  of 
a  variety  of  patterns ;  some  square,  some  "  T  "  shaped,  and  others 
in  the  form  of  a  hook  from  6  to  12  inches  in  length.     The  latter 


Il8  LOGGING 

is  serviceable  in  scaling  sniped  and  rafted  logs.  Some  scale  sticks 
for  measuring  logs  with  the  bark  on  have  a  metal  tip  only,  on  the 
end.  When  the  log  has  bark  on  it  allowance  must  be  made  for 
the  thickness  of  the  latter. 

For  measuring  long  logs  by  the  New  Hampshire  rule  a  caliper 
scale  stick  is  used,  which  is  often  adjusted  so  that  the  scaler  need 
not  make  allowance  for  the  thickness  of  the  bark. 

Scalers  are  provided  with  a  scale  stick;  a  crayon  for  marking 
logs;  and  a  notebook,  scale  sheets,  or  a  paddle  on  which  are 
recorded  either  the  contents  of  each  log  by  lengths,  or  the  length 
and  diameter  of  each  log.  In  the  latter  case  the  volume  is  cal- 
culated in  the  office. 

Scaling  practice  varies  in  the  different  regions  according  to 
the  log  rule  used  and  the  purpose  for  which  the  measurement  is 
made.  In  the  northern  forests  the  scahng  is  often  done  at  the 
skidway  or  at  the  landing  on  the  stream  before  the  logs  are  placed 
on  the  roll  way. 

For  skidway  scaling  a  crew  of  two  men  is  commonly  employed. 
A  third  man  is  assigned  to  the  party  in  case  the  logs  are  to  be 
stamped  with  a  log  brand.  The  usual  practice  is  for  one  man 
to  scale  the  logs  at  the  small  end  inside  the  bark,  and  the  other 
to  record  the  results.  Logs  as  scaled  are  marked  with  a  piece 
of  black  or  blue  crayon.  When  necessary  the  owner's  brand 
is  stamped  several  times  on  both  ends  of  the  log.  The  number 
of  the  skidway  and  the  number  of  pieces  scaled  are  sometimes 
marked  on  a  blazed  tree  nearby;    thus,  ^^q. 

In  the  South  scahng  is  done  by  one  man  either  at  the  stump, 
on  the  skidways  or  on  the  log  cars.  The  usual  purpose  of  the 
scale  in  this  region  is  to  furnish  a  basis  of  payment  for  contract 
work  and  not  for  the  purchase  or  sale  of  logs.  The  latter  are 
marked  only  with  a  crayon  unless  they  are  to  be  floated  to  the 
mill  along  with  timber  of  other  loggers. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  logs  may  be  scaled  either  on  the  car,  or 
in  the  raft  when  the  logs  are  to  be  floated  to  the  mill. 

The  number  of  logs  a  scaler  can  measure  daily  is  exceedingly 
variable,  due  to  the  different  conditions  under  which  the  work  is 
done.     Under  favorable  conditions,  however,  he  should  measure 


MEASUREMENT  OF  LOGS  AND  OTHER  FOREST  PRODUCTS      II9 

from  800  to  1000  logs.  A  scaler  and  helper  in  Ontario  will 
average  3000  pieces  at  a  cost  of  2|  cents  per  thousand  feet.^ 

The  cost  of  scaling  ranges  from  2  to  10  cents  per  thousand 
feet.  Scalers  receive  from  $50  to  $100  per  month  when  working 
on  a  salary.  Contract  scaling  on  large  timber  ranges  from  3  to 
5  cents  per  thousand  feet. 

It  is  customary  on  Government  timber  sales  for  a  head 
scaler  to  check-scale  or  re-scale  a  portion  of  the  timber  meas- 
ured by  the  regular  scalers  to  detect  possible  errors.  The 
number  of  pieces  re-measured  varies  from  5  to  25  per  cent  of 
the  total.  The  cost  of  the  check-scale  is  5  cents  or  more  per 
thousand  feet. 

The  various  steps  in  the  measurement  of  logs  are  as  follows: 

(i)  Determination  of  the  length.  The  scaler  may  do  this  by 
laying  off  the  length  with  his  scale  stick,  or  by  measuring  with 
a  tape,  a  pole  or  a  wheel  attached  to  the  caliper  arm.  The 
wheel  has  10  spokes,  each  armed  with  a  spike,  and  the  spokes  are 
of  such  length  that  the  distance  between  each  spike  is  exactly  6 
inches.  One  weighted  spoke  affords  a  starting  point  for  measure- 
ment. The  length  of  the  log  is  determined  from  the  number  of 
revolutions  of  the  wheel. 

Many  scalers  estimate  lengths  and  measure  only  occasional 
logs  as  a  check  on  short  lengths.  When  log-makers  are  paid  on 
the  basis  of  the  amount  of  timber  cut,  this  practice  often  leads  to 
careless  work,  because  a  slight  shortage  in  log  lengths  cannot  be 
detected  readily. 

(2)  Determination  of  the  diameter.  Logs  of  standard  length- 
are  measured  inside  the  bark  at  the  top  or  small  end.  It  has 
become  a  practice  in  some  regions,  particularly  in  the  South,  to 
scale  inside  the  bark  on  one  edge  and  outside  on  the  other. 
Custom  has  made  this  the  recognized  method  among  operators, 
but  it  is  not  standard.  The  inconsistency  of  this  practice  can 
readily  be  seen  when  it  is  considered  that  the  thickness  of  bark 
is  not  a  constant  factor  even  on  logs  from  the  same  tree  and  a 

1  See  The  Canada  Lumberman  and  Woodworker,  Toronto,  Ontario,  Canada, 
September,  191 1,  p.  67. 

^  Standard  lengths  range  from  10  to  24  feet  inclusive,  in  multiples  of  2  feet. 


I20  LOGGING 

practical  log  rule  based  on  the  measurement  of  any  portion  of 
the  bark  could  not  be  devised. 

When  the  log  is  not  round  the  average  diameter  is  taken. 
Diameters  are  usually  rounded  to  even  inches,  one-half  inch  or 
less  being  tallied  as  the  next  even  inch  below,  and  over  one-half 
inch,  as  the  next  even  inch  above.  Some  scalers,  however, 
throw  all  fractional  inches  in  the  next  lower  inch  class. 

Veneer  logs,  especially  when  they  are  to  be  rotary  cut,  are 
often  measured  on  the  smallest  diameter.  Extra  long  logs  such 
as  are  frequently  cut  in  some  parts  of  the  spruce  region,  the 
yellow  pine  region  of  the  South,  and  the  fir  region  of  the  Pacific 
Coast  may  be  scaled  as  single  lengths,  with  or  without  allowance 
for  the  taper  of  the  log. 

On  the  National  Forests,  except  in  Alaska  and  the  territory 
west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  logs  over  i6  feet  long  are  scaled 
as  two,  and  preferably  in  lengths  not  less  than  1 2  feet.^  This  is 
accomplished  either  by  determining  the  actual  diameter  of  the 
logs  at  the  intermediate  points  or  by  making  allowance  for  the 
taper.  In  private  practice  where  no  allowance  is  made  for  taper, 
the  log  rules  give  results  far  below  the  sawing  contents  of  the 
log. 

(3)  Determination  of  the  quality  or  grade  of  the  log.  When 
scaling  is  done  primarily  to  serve  as  the  basis  for  the  payment 
of  saw  or  skidding  crews  it  is  customary  to  measure  defective 
logs  as  though  they  were  sound  and  to  give  full  credit  to  the 
workmen  since  it  requires  as  much  time  and  labor  to  fell  and 
handle  them  as  it  does  sound  logs,  and  discrimination  acts  as  an 
inducement  for  workmen  to  leave  defective  timber  in  the  woods. 

Where  the  object  of  scahng  is  to  furnish  a  basis  for  the  sale 
of  timber  it  is  customary  to  reduce  the  scale  of  defective  logs 

1  On  the  National  Forests  in  Alaska  and  west  of  the  summit  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains  in  Washington  and  Oregon,  logs  up  to  and  including  32  feet  long  are 
scaled  as  one  log;  lengths  from  34  to  64  feet,  inclusive,  are  scaled  as  two  logs,  the 
division  being  made  as  near  the  center  as  possible,  for  example,  a  34-foot  log  would 
be  scaled  as  an  18-foot  butt  log  and  a  16-foot  top  log.  On  logs  of  average  taper  the 
diameter  of  the  larger  log  may  be  determined  by  taking  the  mean  of  the  top  and 
butt  diameters  of  the  whole  length  by  calipering,  or  by  estimating  with  the  aid  of 
a  taper  table.  Greater  lengths  than  64  feet  are  scaled  as  three  logs,  making  the 
division  as  nearly  equal  as  possible  and  in  even  feet. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  LOGS  AND  OTHER  FOREST  PRODUCTS      121 

and  to  credit  only  the  amount  which  the  log  will  actually  saw  out 
in  merchantable  lumber,  according  to  the  standard  agreed  upon 
between  buyer  and  seller. 

The  "merchantable  timber"  may  be  the  basis  on  which  the 
scaling  is  done,  in  which  case  there  is  always  a  chance  for  argu- 
ment between  buyer  and  seller.  It  is  better  policy  to  specify 
that  the  buyer  must  take  all  timber  that  will  produce  at  least  a 
specified  grade  of  lumber. 

Scahng  defective  logs  requires  expert  judgment  and  long  ex- 
perience as  there  are  a  great  variety  of  defects  possible  and  the 
determination  of  the  extent  to  which  they  influence  the  sawing 
contents  of  the  log  must  be  left  entirely  to  the  scaler.  Rules  for 
discounting  unsound  logs  are  of  value  chiefly  as  a  check  on  the 
scaler's  judgment.  The  latter  becomes  expert  through  study- 
ing defective  logs  as  they  are  sawed  in  a  mill  and  actually 
determining  the  amount  of  sawed  material  that  logs  with  given 
defects  will  yield.  This  varies  with  the  species,  character  of 
lumber  manufactured,  type  of  saw  used,  efficiency  of  the 
sawyer  and  the  degree  of  utilization  in  the  manufacturing 
plant. 

Among  the  defects  common  to  timber  are  center  or  heart  rot, 
shake,  pin-dote,  cat-face,  rotten  sap,  deep  checks  and  seams, 
crook,  crotches,  stained  sap  and  rafting  pinholes. 

Uniform  Center  or  Circular  Rot.  —  There  are  a  number  of 
methods  in  use  for  discounting  this  form  of  defect. 

(i)  Assume  the  scahng  diameter  of  the  log  to  be  the  diameter 
minus  the  diameter  of  the  rotten  core.  Thus,  if  a  12-foot  log 
were  20  inches  in  diameter  and  the  rotten  core  had  a  diameter 
of  6  inches,  the  scaling  diameter  would  be  14  inches.  The  loss, 
using  the  International  rule,  would  be  125  board  feet,  or  53  per 
cent  of  the  total. 

(2)  Scale  the  log  as  sound,  compute  the  contents  of  the  rotten 
core  and  subtract  this  from  the  gross  scale.  The  loss  in  the  log 
above  cited  would  be  15  feet,  or  7.3  per  cent. 

(3)  Add  3  inches  to  the  diameter  of  the  defect,  square  the  sum 
and  deduct  this  from  the  full  scale  of  the  log.  This  method 
shows  a  loss  of  81  feet,  or  34  per  cent. 


122  LOGGING 

(4)^  "  For  uniform  defect  of  3  inches  or  less  in  diameter,  deduct 
10  feet  b.m.  in  logs  up  to  16  feet  in  length. 

"For  defect  4  to  6  inches  in  diameter  add  3  inches  to  actual 
diameter  of  rot,  and  deduct  from  the  full  scale  of  the  log  an 
amount  equal  to  the  contents  of  a  log  of  the  resultant  diameter. 

"For  defect  7  to  12  inches  in  diameter  add  4  inches  to  diam- 
eter of  rot  and  deduct  an  amount  equal  to  the  contents  of  a  log 
of  the  resultant  diameter  from  full  scale  of  log. 

"In  short  logs  showing  defect  less  than  4  inches  in  diameter 
at  only  one  end  and  not  in  the  knots  deduct  one-half  the  amount 
called  for  by  the  rule  for  the  full  length  of  the  log. 

"In  measuring  the  diameter  of  this  t^-pe  of  rot  the  scaler 
should  measure  it  at  the  end  of  the  log  showing  the  greatest  area 
of  defect,  since  the  saw  cuts  in  straight  parallel  lines." 

Using  the  International  scale  the  above  method  gives  a  loss  on 
a  12-foot  log,  20  inches  in  diameter  and  with  a  6-inch  rotten  core, 
of  40  feet,  or  17  per  cent. 

The  wide  variation  in  the  results  secured  by  these  different 
methods  shows  the  weakness  of  the  average  systems  employed. 

In  "Forest  Mensuration,"- certain  defects  are  classified,  and 
tables  showing  the  discounts  are  given.  A  cull  table  for  center 
rot  taken  from  this  volume  follows.  It  is  based  on  a  study  made 
by  Tiemann  which  established  the  fact,  theoretically,  that  "in 
logs  of  the  same  length,  the  loss  due  to  holes  of  any  specified  size 
is  practically  uniform  regardless  of  the  size  of  the  log." 

Although  the  table  is  designed  to  be  "appHcable  to  all  center 
defects,  such  as  holes,  cup  shake,  rot,  etc.,  which  are  4  inches 
or  more  from  the  bark,"  it  is  less  accurate  for  holes  than  for 
rot. 

In  actual  sawing  practice  there  is  a  difference  in  the  loss  of 
timber  in  two  logs  of  a  given  size,  one  of  which  has  a  rotten  core 
of  a  certain  diameter  and  the  other  a  hole  of  the  same  diameter. 
When  sawing  a  hollow  log  enough  timber  must  be  left  around  all 
sides  to  hold  against  the  carriage  dogs  and  prevent  the  saw  from 

*  Method  used  by  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

2  Forest  Mensuration,  by  Henry  Solon  Graves.  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  New 
York,  1906,  p.  71. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  LOGS  AND  OTHER  FOREST  PRODUCTS 


:23 


breaking  down  the  shell  into  the  cavity.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  log  with  a  defective  center  can  be  sawed  close  to  the  rotten 
core  because  the  unsound  wood  prevents  the  shell  from  col- 
lapsing. The  loss  on  a  6-inch  rotten  center  may  be  a  stick 
squaring  6  inches  by  6  inches  in  size,  while  a  hole  of  the  same 
diameter  would  cause  a  loss  of  a  square  at  least  8  inches  by 
8  inches.  With  this  modification  the  table  can  be  used  with 
greater  safety  than  many  of  the  rule-of-thumb  methods  now 
employed. 

In  applying  the  table,  the  longest  diameter  of  the  defect  is 
measured,  the  loss  is  then  determined  from  the  cull  table  and  sub- 
tracted from  the  gross  scale.  The  defect  should  be  measured  at 
the  large  end  if  it  runs  through  the  log  or  appears  at  the  large  end 
only;  otherwise,  measure  at  the  small  end.  The  table  assumes 
the  loss  of  entire  boards  even  if  the  defect  is  visible  only  at  one 

end. 

CULL   TABLE 

Loss  THROUGH  DEFECTS   OF   DIFFERENT   DIAMETERS   NEAR  THE   CENTERS    OF   LOGS 
(Good  for  defects  more  than  4  inches  from  the  bark.) 


Length  of  logs  in  feet. 

Diameter 

of  defect. 

10 

12 

13 

14 

16 

18 

20 

inches. 

Board  feet. 

2 

5 

6 

6.5 

7 

8 

9 

10 

3 

9 

II 

12 

13 

15 

16.5 

18 

4 

14 

17 

18 

20 

23 

255 

28 

5 

20 

24 

26 

28 

32 

36 

40 

6 

27-5 

33 

36 

38.5 

44 

49-5 

55 

7 

36 

43 

47 

SO 

57 

65 

72 

8 

45 

54 

58. 5 

63 

72 

81 

90 

9 

56 

67 

74 

78 

89 

100 

112 

10 

67 

81 

87 

93 

107 

120 

133 

II 

80 

96 

104 

112 

128 

144 

160 

12 

94 

113 

122 

132 

151 

169.5 

188 

13 

109 

131 

142 

153 

175 

196.5 

218 

14 

125 

150 

162.5 

175 

200 

225 

250 

15 

142 

171 

184 

218 

226 

255 

283 

Circular  Shake.  —  This  may  be  discounted  in  the  same  manner 
as  circular  rot,  by  determining  the  diameter  of  the  defect  outside 
of  the  shake  "rings."     When  there  is  a  solid  core  inside  of  the 


124  LOGGING 

shake  rings  the  contents  are  subtracted  from  the  gross  scale  of 
the  defect  and  the  remainder  deducted  from  the  full  scale  of  the 
log. 

Pin-dote.  —  This  defect  appears  on  the  ends  of  logs  as  small 
rotten  spots,  often  distributed  in  a  circular  form.  The  rot 
frequently  starts  from  punk  knots  and  near  the  latter  the  log 
may  be  very  defective.  When  the  visible  area  affected  is  4 
inches  or  more  in  diameter  the  usual  method  is  to  discount  the 
log  contents  in  the  same  manner  as  for  circular  rot. 

Stump  or  Butt  Rot.  —  This  defect  seldom  extends  more  than  a 
few  feet  into  the  log  and  usually  tapers  to  a  point.  Where  the 
wood  is  only  shghtly  rotten  and  the  affected  area  is  small,  the 
defect  seldom  extends  more  than  a  few  inches  and  often  no  allow- 
ance is  made  for  it. 

When  the  defect  occupies  the  center  of  the  log  and  extends 
nearly  to  the  bark,  the  usual  practice  is  to  reduce  the  scaling 
length.  When  a  few  boards  can  be  cut  from  the  outer  shell  of 
the  affected  portion  their  board-foot  contents  are  added  to  the 
merchantable  scale. 

Butt  rot  near  one  edge  of  the  log  may  be  largely  removed  by 
the  slab,  and  the  scaler  must  exercise  judgment  in  determining 
the  deduction  to  be  made. 

Cat-face.  —  This  may  be  due  to  an  injury  to  the  butt  by  fire, 
or  to  wounds  made  by  spht  shingle  makers  who  cut  into  trees  to 
determine  the  straightness  of  the  grain  of  the  wood.  The  com- 
mon practice  is  to  divide  the  log  into  sections,  then  determine 
what  proportion  of  a  particular  section  will  be  lost  in  manufac- 
ture and  deduct  this  amount. 

Other  Side  Dejects.  —  Lightning  scars  seldom  extend  far  into 
the  wood  and  are  usually  removed  with  the  slab.  Unless  deep 
they  are  disregarded. 

Punk  knots  which  are  an  indication  of  red  heart  or  rot  often 
render  a  log  practically  worthless,  especially  when  rot  appears 
at  either  end.  As  a  rule,  pine  timber  that  is  badly  affected  has 
exudations  of  resin  at  numerous  points  along  the  bole  and  often 
bears  fruiting  bodies  of  a  fungus.  The  scaler's  judgment  is  the 
only  guide  in  discounting  logs  of  this  character. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  LOGS  AND  OTHER  FOREST  PRODUCTS      1 25 

Rotten  Sap.  —  The  sound  heartwoocl  only  is  measured  on 
logs  having  this  defect. 

Stained  Sap.  —  Sound  stained  sapwood  of  most  species  is 
merchantable  if  it  has  not  been  attacked  by  wood-boring  insects. 
The  full  scale  is  given  for  sound  material,  but  when  the  sap- 
wood  is  worm-eaten  the  heartwood  only  is  measured. 

Checks  and  Seams.  —  These  are  found  chiefly  on  dead  timber 
from  which  the  bark  has  fallen.  They  usually  extend  through  the 
sap,  and  on  timber  that  has  been  dead  for  some  years  they  may 
extend  well  toward  the  center  of  the  tree.  Where  the  checks  are 
small  the  scaling  diameter  is  taken  inside  the  sap,  while  on  logs 
with  wide  checks  a  further  deduction  must  be  made  in  accord- 
ance with  the  scaler's  judgment. 

A  single  deep  check  can  usually  be  sawed  out  by  the  loss  of  one 
or  two  boards  and  their  contents  only  should  be  deducted. 

Spiral  Checks.  —  Where  deep  spiral  checks  occur  the  scaling 
diameter  is  that  of  the  largest  circle  that  can  be  secured  without 
the  inclusion  of  the  checks. 

Crook  or  Sweep.  —  The  percentage  of  loss  from  this  defect  is 
greater  on  small  logs  than  on  large  ones.  The  contents  of  the 
log  may  be  determined  by  finding  where  the  saws  will  square  the 
log  sufficiently  to  enable  boards  of  the  narrowest  merchantable 
width  to  be  cut.  If  the  sweep  is  pronounced,  a  few  short  boards 
may  be  secured  from  the  slab,  in  which  case  their  estimated 
board-foot  contents  are  added  to  the  scale  of  the  log. 

Crotches.  —  Logs  with  crotches  near  the  end  are  reduced  in 
length  sufficiently  to  eliminate  the  crotch.  The  scafing  diam- 
eter is  taken  just  below  the  enlargement  caused  by  the  fork. 

Rafting  Pinholes.  —  These  are  usually  about  2  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  located  near  the  ends  of  the  log.  They  can  generally 
be  removed  by  wasting  the  ends,  or  portions  of  a  few  boards, 
provided  the  log  is  sawed  in  an  economical  manner.  The  only 
guide  to  discounting  defects  of  this  character  is  the  scaler's 
judgment. 

LOG    GRADES 

Logs  that  are  brought  into  large  markets  for  sale  are  classified 
into  grades  that  have  been  adopted  by  associations.     Printed 


126  LOGGING 

rules  for  the  guidance  of  inspectors  have  been  issued.  The 
specifications  contained  in  them  furnish  the  basis  on  which 
market  quotations  are  made.  Grades  are  enforced  by  scalers 
employed  by  the  associations  and  a  fee  is  charged  for  their 
services. 

Among  the  chief  hardwood  log-grading  rules  are  those  of  the 
Lumbermen's  Association,  Nashville,  Tennessee,  and  among  the 
chief  softwood  rules  are  those  of  the  Columbia  River  Log  Scaling 
and  Grading  Bureau,  Portland,  Oregon,  copies  of  which  are  given 
on  pages  525  to  528,  inclusive,  in  the  Appendix. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE  TO  CHAPTER  VHI 

Gary,  Austin:    A  Manual    for  Northern  Woodsmen.     Published   by  Harvard 

University,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1901. 
Clark,   Judson   F.:    The   Measurement  of    Saw   Logs.     Forestry  Quarterly, 

Vol.  IV,  No.  2,  1906,  pp.  79-93- 
Forest  Service:    U.   S.   Department  of  Agriculture.     The  National  Forest 

Manual,  Washington,  D.  C,  191 1. 
Graves,  Henry  Solon:  Forest  Mensuration.     John  Wiley  and  Sons,  New  York 

1906. 
:   The  Woodsman's  Handbook  (revised  and  enlarged). 

Bulletin  36,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C,  1910. 
Tiemann,  H.  D.:   The  Log  Scale  in  Theory  and  Practice.     Proceedings  of  the 

Society  of   American   Foresters,  Vol.  V,    No.   i,   Washington,  D.  C,  1910, 

pp.   18-58. 
WOOLSEY  Jr.,  T.  W.:    Scaling  Government  Timber.     Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol. 

V,  No.  2,  1907. 
Ziegler,  E.  a.:    The  Standardizing  of  Log  Measures.     Proc.  of  the  Soc.  of 

Am.  For.,  Vol.  IV,  No.  2,  1909,  pp.  172-184. 
ZoN,  Raphael:    Factors  Influencing  the  Volume  of  Wood  in  a  Cord.     Forestry 

Quarterly,  Vol.  i,  pp.  126-133. 


PART  III 
LAND  TRANSPORT 


CHAPTER  IX 
ANIMAL  DRAFT  POWER 

For  many  years  animals  constituted  the  only  draft  power 
used  in  logging  operations  in  the  United  States.  They  are  still 
used  extensively  in  the  spruce  region  of  the  Northeast,  the  Appa- 
lachians, the  yellow  pine  forests  of  the  South,  the  Lake  States, 
the  Inland  Empire  and  portions  of  California.  In  all  of  these 
regions  machinery  has  replaced  them  for  some  purposes,  yet 
animal  logging  is  still  the  chief  method. 

Animals  are  now  seldom  employed  for  moving  heavy  timber, 
for  swamp  logging  or  for  work  on  very  rough  ground  and  very 
steep  slopes.  Power-driven  machinery  has  supplanted  them  in 
the  redwood  belt  of  Cahfornia,  the  fir  forests  of  the  Northwest, 
the  cypress  swamps  of  the  South  and  some  of  the  rough  moun- 
tainous portions  of  the  United  States. 

They  still  remain  the  favorite  form  of  draft  where  the  timber 
is  of  medium  size,  where  the  stand  per  acre  is  less  than  5000 
feet  and  where  topography  and  bottom  afford  good  footing. 

The  chief  uses  for  animals  in  logging  are  to  transport  timber 
and  other  forest  products  from  the  stump  to  a  collecting  point 
along  a  logging  railroad,  a  landing  on  some  stream  or  to  a  saw- 
mill. In  addition  they  often  supply  the  power  for  decking  logs 
on  skidways,  and  loading  logs  on  sleds,  wagons  and  logging  cars. 
Even  where  machinery  is  used  for  skidding  logs,  animals  may  be 
required  to  return  the  cable  to  the  woods  and  to  haul  wood  and 
water  for  the  engines. 

Oxen.  —  Oxen  were  the  only  animals  owned  by  many  of  the 
pioneer  lumbermen  and,  even  after  horses  were  available,  loggers 
operating  in  remote  sections  found  the  ox  more  desirable  because 
it  could  Hve  on  coarser  feed,  draw  heavier  loads,  stand  rougher 
treatment  and  required  an  inexpensive  harness  which  could  be 
made  in  camp. 

129 


130 


LOGGING 


Conditions  have  changed  within  recent  years,  and  the  higher 
cost  of  labor  and  supplies  has  led  the  logger  to  use  either  horses 
or  mules  because  they  are  more  active  than  oxen.  Oxen 
are  now  most  extensively  employed  in  the  hardwood  regions  of 
the  Appalachians  and  in  the  yellow  pine  region  of  the  South, 
where  they  are  frequently  supplemented  by  horses  or  mules. 

The  following  conditions  are  those  under  which  oxen  may  be 
used  to  the  best  advantage: 

(i)  On  swampy  ground,  because  they  do  not  mire  as  badly 
as  the  smaller-footed  horse  or  mule. 

(2)  For  skidding  on  brushy  ground,  as  they  require  little 
swamping. 

(3)  On  steep  slopes,  especially  if  the  ground  is  rough  and  the 
underbrush  abundant,  because  they  are  not  excitable  in  difficult 
situations. 

One  advantage  is  that  eight  or  ten  animals  can  be  handled 
by  one  teamster,  while  only  four  or  five  horses  or  mules  can  be 
worked  by  one  man.  Oxen  stand  heavy  pulHng  day  after  day 
better  than  other  draft  animals  and  also  require  a  minimum  of 
attention  because  only  one  feed  per  day  is  necessary  if  the 
animals  are  turned  out  to  graze  at  night. 

They  are  slow  on  short  hauls  but  they  can  be  loaded  more 
heavily  and  thus  partially  ofifset  the  greater  speed  of  horses  and 
mules,  although  they  are  not  as  serviceable  as  mules  on  hot, 
dusty  roads  because  they  suffer  from  continual  exposure  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and,  on  very  warm  days,  may  be  easily 
killed  by  over-exertion  due  to  careless  driving.  They  can  be 
used  in  cold  regions  without  danger.  Under  average  conditions 
an  ox  will  travel  fourteen  miles  in  eight  hours. 

Oxen  are  usually  harnessed  with  a  yoke;  seldom  with  a  collar 
and  harness.  The  driver  controls  them  by  the  voice  and  by  a 
heavy  rawhide  whip.  They  are  worked  in  teams  of  from  three 
to  five  yoke.  In  a  team  of  five  yoke  the  front  pair  are  called 
"leaders,"  the  next  two  pairs  are  "in  the  swing,"  the  fourth 
pair  are  "point  cattle"  and  the  rear  pair  are  called  "wheelers." 
The  leaders  are  the  best  trained,  while  the  wheelers  are  the 
heaviest  yoke  of  the  team. 


ANIMAL   DRAFT   POWER  13I 

The  training  begins  when  the  animals  reach  the  age  of  one 
and  one-half  or  two  years,  but  they  do  not  attain  their  best 
development  until  their  fifth  or  sixth  year.  They  are  service- 
able, under  average  conditions,  until  they  reach  the  age  of  ten  or 
twelve  years. 

In  the  South  oxen  for  logging  purposes  weigh  about  1200 
pounds  and  are  generally  purchased  from  farmers  near  the  logging 
operation.  They  cost  from  $60  to  $100  per  yoke  for  average 
animals  and  because  of  insufficient  food  are  usually  light  weight 
when  purchased  and  require  a  year  or  more  of  proper  feeding 
before  they  attain  their  average  efficiency.  Heavy  or  well- 
trained  animals  may  bring  as  high  as  $200  per  yoke. 

Horses.  —  Horses  are  commonly  used  in  the  Appalachians, 
Lake  States,  Inland  Empire  and  the  Northeast.  They  stand 
cold  weather  well,  are  active  and  are  moderate  eaters.  They 
are  best  adapted  for  logging  on  smooth  or  roHing  ground,  and 
with  good  care  will  remain  efficient  for  from  four  to  seven  years. 
In  northern  Alabama,  when  well  cared  for,  they  are  as  satis- 
factory as  mules,  but  farther  south  the  climate  is  not  favorable 
for  them.  When  improperly  housed  and  fed  they  are  less  effi- 
cient under  similar  conditions  than  mules  or  oxen. 

Horses  weighing  from  1200  to  1400  pounds  are  best  adapted 
for  handling  small  logs  and  for  rough  work  in  the  Northeast. 
For  heavy  logging  and  two-sled  hauHng  horses  weighing  from  1 500 
to  1800  pounds  are  preferred.  Animals  of  this  weight  are  not 
adapted  to  rough  ground  or  steep  slopes  because  they  are  not 
active  enough.  They  are  also  too  heavy  for  use  on  frozen  slopes 
with  a  grade  exceeding  25  degrees. 

Horses  for  logging  purposes  are  generally  purchased  from 
dealers  who  make  a  specialty  of  draft  animals.  Good  animals 
for  logging  work  are  worth  about  $250  each. 

Mules.  —  Mules  are  used  more  extensively  in  the  South  than 
in  any  other  section. 

The  chief  points  of  advantage  are: 

(i)  They  will  stand  more  heat  than  an  ox  or  a  horse  and  are, 
therefore,  better  adapted  for  long  or  hard  hauls  during  summer 
months  or  in  a  hot  climate. 


132  LOGGING 

(2)  They  will  stand  rougher  treatment  and  perform  more 
labor  on  poor  feed  than  a  horse. 

(3)  They  are  less  excitable  than  horses  and,  therefore,  are 
well  suited  for  use  in  operations  where  colored  teamsters  are 
employed. 

(4)  They  are  more  agile  than  horses  on  rough  ground. 

(5)  They  eat  less  than  horses  and  seldom  overfeed.  Mules 
have  not  proved  a  success  in  the  North  where  low  temperatures 
prevail  during  the  winter. 

Under  favorable  conditions  there  is  httle  difference  in  the 
amount  of  work  performed  daily  by  mules  and  horses. 

Mules  for  logging  purposes  range  in  weight  from  11 00  pounds 
for  leaders  to  1300  pounds  for  wheelers.  They  cost  from  $225  to 
$250  each  in  the  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City  and  other  mule  markets. 
Southern  loggers  usually  purchase  their  mules  at  one  of  the  two 
markets  mentioned  or  from  farmers  in  Kansas  and  nearby  states. 
The  best  mules  are  raised  in  Missouri,  Kentucky  and  Kansas. 


The  rations  given  to  animals  vary  greatly  because  of  the  differ- 
ence in  the  character  of  feed  available  and  the  diversified  opin- 
ions of  feeders. 

A  draft  animal  at  hard  work  requires  a  certain  amount  of 
concentrated  food  containing  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fats, 
which  is  fed  in  the  form  of  grains,  such  as  corn,  oats  and  barley; 
mill  products,  including  corn  meal,  ground  corn  and  oats,  and 
similar  combinations;  and  the  by-products,  cottonseed  meal, 
cottonseed  hulls  and  linseed  meal.  In  addition,  animals  require 
rough  material,  such  as  hay  of  various  kinds,  corn  fodder,  corn 
husks  and  like  feeds  to  give  bulk  to  the  ration.  If  no  rough 
fodder  or  hay  is  given,  an  animal  will  consume  more  concentrated 
food  than  necessary  to  keep  it  in  working  condition.  On  the 
other  hand,  heavily-worked  animals  cannot  subsist  on  roughage 
alone  because  the  digestible  nutrients  are  so  small  that  they 
cannot  consume  a  sufficient  bulk  to  secure  the  proper  amount  of 
nourishment. 

In  preparing  rations  for  animals,  horses  and  mules  require 


ANIMAL   DRAFT   POWER 


133 


different  treatment  from  oxen  because  they  have  smaller 
stomachs.  As  they  have  less  power  to  digest  foods,  they  must 
be  fed  less  at  one  time  and  at  more  frequent  intervals. 

The  degree  of  digestibility  is  dependent  on  two  factors; 
namely,  the  length  of  time  the  food  remains  in  the  digestive 
tract,^  and  on  the  fineness  of  the  division  of  the  food.  Mastica- 
tion is  less  in  horses  and  mules  than  in  oxen  because  the  former 
must  do  all  the  chewing  before  the  food  is  swallowed  while 
ruminants,  such  as  the  ox,  regurgitate  their  food  and  chew  it 
at  will. 

German  students  of  animal  nutrition,  among  them  Wolff  and 
Lehmann,  have  prepared  tables  showing  the  amount  of  chemical 
constituents  required  for  animals  of  a  standard  weight  of  1000 
pounds,  performing  a  given  kind  of  labor.  Other  weights  are  in 
proportion.  These  tables  are  known  as  feeding  standards  and 
are  an  approximate  statement  of  the  amounts  of  the  different 
nutrients  required  by  animals.  They  serve  as  a  guide  for 
feeders. 


WOLFF-LEHMANN   FEEDING   STANDARDS  1 

[Showing  amounts  of  nutrients  per  looo  pounds  live  weight  for  one  day's  feeding.' 


Oxen:- 

At  rest  in  stall.  .  . 

At  light  work.  .  .  . 

At  medium  work. 

At  heavy  work. . . 
Horses: 

At  light  work. .  .  . 

At  medium  work. 

At  heavy  work . . . 


Total 

dry 

matter. 

Digestible  nutrients.          1 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates. 

Fat. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

18 

0.7 

S.O 

0.  I 

22 

25 

28 

1-4 
2.0 

2.8 

10. 0 

13.0 

0-3 
0.8 

20 
24 
26 

1-5 
2.0 

2-5 

95 
II. 0 

0.4 
0.6 

0.8 

Calories.  < 

16,600 
22,500 
27,200 

32,755 

22,150 
26,700 
32,750 


1  From  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,  by  E.  W.  Allen.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  22,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  1901,  p.  12. 

2  For  an  unworked  ox  of  1000  pounds  weight  the  standard  calls  for  0.78  pound  of  digestible  pro- 
tein, 8  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  o.i  pound  of  digestible  fat,  which  would  furnish 
:6,6oo  calories  of  heat  and  energy.  When  heavily  worked  the  same  ox  would  require,  according  to 
the  standard,  food  with  four  times  as  much  protein  and  of  nearly  twice  the  fuel  value. 

3  The  value  of  food  to  produce  heat  for  the  body  and  energy  for  work  is  measured  in  calories  and 
is  calculated  from  the  nutrients  digested.  The  fuel  value  of  one  pound  of  digestible  fat  is  estimated 
to  be  4230  calories  and  of  one  pound  of  digestible  protein  or  of  carbohydrates  about  i860  calories. 
The  total  value  of  a  feeding  stuff  is  found  by  using  these  factors,  the  equivalents  for  the  common 
foods  being  given  on  pages  134  and  135. 

*  A  calorie  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  water  about  4 
degrees. 

1  Cattle  are  said  to  retain  their  food  from  three  to  eight  days,  while  horses  retain 
it  four  days  or  less. 


134 


LOGGING 


If  overfeeding  is  detected  by  loggers  a  new  ration  may  be 

calculated,  or  the  present  ration  modified  with  the  aid  of  this 

feeding  standard  and  the  following  table  which  shows  the  amount 

of  digestible  food  ingredients  in  the  common  feeding  stuffs. 

DRY  MATTER  AND   DIGESTIBLE   FOOD    INGREDIENTS   IN 
loo   POUNDS   OF   FEEDING   STUFFS  i 


Feeding  stuff. 


Total 
dry       Protein. 

matter 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Green  fodder: 

Com  fodder  (average  of  all  va- 
rieties)   

Kafir-corn  fodder 

Rye  fodder 

Oat  fodder 

Redtop,  in  bloom 

Orchard  grass,  in  bloom 

Meadow  fescue,  in  bloom 

Timothy,  at  different  stages..  .  . 

Kentucky  blue  grass 

Hungarian  grass 

Red  clover,  at  dififerent  stages.  . 

Crimson  clover 

Alfalfa,  at  different  stages 

Cowpea 

Soy  bean 

Rape 

Corn  silage  (recent  analyses) 

Com  fodder,  field  cured 

Corn  stover,  field  cured 

Hay  from  — 

Barley 

Oats 

Orchard  grass 

Redtop 

Timothy  (all  analyses) 

Kentucky  blue  grass 

Hungarian  grass 

Meadow  fescue 

Mixed  grasses 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover 

Red  clover 

Alsike  clover 

White  clover 

Crimson  clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soy  bean 

Wheat  straw 

Rye  straw 

Oat  straw 

Soy-bean  straw 

Roots  and  tubers: 

Mangel-wurzels 

Turnips 


0.87 
2.05 
2.44 
2.06 

I.QI 
1.49 
2.01 

2.66 


9.1 
9-5 


389 


511 

4.07 

4.78 

4.82 

2.89 

4.76 

450 

4.20 

4.22 

6.16 

7.38 

8. IS 

11.46 

10.49 

10.58 

10.79 

10.78 

0.37 

0.63 

1.20 

2.30 

1.03 
0.81 


565 
6.46 


Pounds 

0-37 
0.43 
0.44 
0.97 
0.58 
0.58 
0.42 
0.64 
0.69 
0.36 
0.69 
0.44 
0.41 
0.25 
0.63 
0.32 
0.88 
I  •  15 
0-S7 

1-55 
1.67 
1.40 
0-9S 
1-43 
1-99 
1-34 
1-73 
1-33 
1 .46 
1. 81 
1-36 
1.48 
1.29 
1.38 
I-5I 
1-54 
0.40 
0.38 
0.76 
1-03 

O.II 


Calories. 

26,076 
29,101 
31.914 
42,093 
45.785 
35.593 
35.755 
45.909 
40,930 
34.162 
36,187 
23.191 
29.798 
19,209 
29.833 
21,457 
33.046 
69.358 
67,766 

82,894 
76,649 
92,900 

100,078 
92,729 
86,927 

110,131 
95,725 
93.925 
97,059 
92,324 
98,460 

105,346 
95,877 
94,936 
97,865 
98,569 
69,894 
78.254 
77.310 
82,987 

12,889 
13,986 


'  From  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,  by  E.  W.  Allen.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No. 
partment  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1901,  p.  8. 


ANIMAL   DRAFT   POWER 


135 


DRY  MATTER   AND   DIGESTIBLE  FOOD  INGREDIENTS   IN 
100   POUNDS   OF   FEEDING   STUFFS  1     (Continued) 


Roots  and  Tubers: 

Ruta-bagas 

Carrots 

Grains  and  other  seeds: 

Corn  (average  of  dent  and  flint) 

Kafir  corn 

Barley 

Oats 

Rye 

Wheat  (all  varieties) 

Cottonseed  (whole) 

Mill  products: 

Com  meal 

Corn-and-cob  meal 

Barley  meal 

Ground  corn  and  oats,  equal 
parts 

Pea  meal 

Waste  products: 

Rye  bran 

Wheat  bran,  all  analyses 

Wheat  middlings 

Wheat  shorts 

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat  middlings 

Cottonseed  feed 

Cottonseed  meal 

Cottonseed  hulls 

Linseed  meal  (old  process) 

Linseed  meal  (new  process) 


Total 

dry 

matter. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
.  drates. 

Fat. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

II. 4 

0.88 

7-74 

0.  II 

II. 4 

0.81 

7.83 

0.22 

81. 1 

7-14 

66.12 

4-97 

«7..S 

,^■78 

53-58 

1-33 

89.1 

8.69 

64.83 

1.60 

89.0 

9-25 

48.34 

4.18 

88.4 

9.12 

69-73 

I.. 36 

89-5 

10.23 

69.21 

1.68 

89.7 

11.08 

33-13 

18.44 

85.0 

6.26 

65.26 

3   50 

84.9 

4.76 

60.06 

2.94 

88.1 

7-36 

62.88 

1.96 

88.1 

7.01 

61.20 

V87 

89.5 

16.77 

51-78 

0.65 

88.2 

11.47 

52-40 

1.79 

88.5 

12.01 

41-23 

2.87 

84.0 

12.79 

53-15 

3-40 

88.2 

12.22 

49-98 

3-83 

88.5 

19.29 

31-65 

4., 56 

88.2 

22.34 

36-14 

6.21 

92.0 

9-65 

38.57 

3-37 

91.8 

3701 

16.52 

12.58 

88.9 

I  05 

32.21 

1.89 

90.8 

28.76 

32.81 

7.06 

90.1 

30-59 

38.72 

2.90 

16,497 
16,999 

157,237 

116,022 

143-499 
124,757 
152,400 

154,848 

160,047 

147,797 
132,972 
138,918 

143,202 
130,246 

126,352 

111,138 

136,996 

131,855 

113,992 
134,979 
103,911 
152,653 
69,839 
144,313 
141,155 


1  From  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,  by  E.  W.  Allen.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  22,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.,  1901,  p.  8. 

In  calculating  rations  according  to  the  preceding  tables,  it  is 
only  essential  that  the  quantities  of  carbohydrates  and  fats 
correspond  approximately,  because  they  both  serve  practically 
the  same  purpose  and  an  excess  of  one  may  be  offset  by  a  de- 
ficiency of  the  other. 

The  test  of  the  fitness  of  a  ration  for  a  draft  animal  is  the 
ability  of  the  animal  to  maintain  an  even  weight.  Generally,  if 
a  healthy  animal  loses  weight,  it  is  an  indication  of  insufficient 
food,  while  an  increase  denotes  an  excessive  ration.  This  does 
not  refer  to  minor  changes  in  weight  from  day  to  day  but  to 
changes  observed  over  a  period  of  several  weeks. 


136 


LOGGING 


RATIONS  ACTUALLY  FED  TO  HORSES  AND  DIGESTIBLE 
NUTRIENTS     AND    ENERGY    IN    RATIONS    CALCU- 
LATED TO  A  BASIS  OF  looo  POUNDS  LIVE  WEIGHT  i 


is 

Rations 
actually  fed. 

Nutrients  in  ra- 
tion per  1000 
pounds  live 
weight. 

Digestible  nu- 
trients in  rations 
per  1000  pounds 
live  weight. 

1. 

w 

Kind  of  animals. 

£ 

1 
II 

1 
1 

2 

Oh 

i 

1 

E| 
.11 

z 

1 

-s 

5 

0 

Army  horses.'^ 
United  States: 

Lbs 

1050  1 
.25  1 

1025 1 

|,3.o[ 

Lbs 

Oats,  12 

Hay,  14.... 
Oats,  12.... 

Hay, 14 

Oats,  9 

Hay,  14.... 

Hay,  15.2... 

Corn,  10.5.  . 

Corn  silage, 

10. 5 

Lbs 
|a.„ 

2.38 

Lbs 

0.90 
0.84 
0.78 

0.77 

Lbs 

12.82 
11.96 
11-39 
11.99 

Lbs 

4.95 
4.62 

4.08 

Lbs 

1.25 
1. 16 
1. 00 

1.49 

Lbs 

0.57 
0.53 
0.48 

0.42 

Lbs 

8.00 
7.48 
6.88 

8.09 

Lbs 

1.97 
1.84 
1.94 
1.63 

Calo- 
ries. 

23,300 

Artillery 

21,750 

Mules              

20,250 

Farm  horses. 
General  average  for 
moderate  work. 

22,710 

Farm     mules,     Virginia 
Station. 

1.70 

0.82 

12.00 

4.00 

0.72 

0.42 

8.22 

1.75 

21,655 

Average  of  6,  includ- 
ing above. 

1.64 

0.78 

11.54 

3.74 

0.69 

0.39 

7-95 

1.60 

20,675 

1500 1 

Oats,  7.5... 
Hay,  20.  .  .  . 
Oats,  15.... 
Hay,  12 

Horses  with  severe  work. 
Truck  and  draft  horses: 
Chicago,  111.,  daily  ra- 
tion. 
South  Omaha,  Neb 

[.38 
j,.63 

0.58 

0.70 

8.99 
9.57 

4.34 
3.27 

0.64 
1.04 

0.34 
0.45 

5. II 
6.23 

1.79 
1.27 

15,450 
17,800 

Average  of  5.  includ- 
ing above. 

1.80 

0.76 

10.49 

3.49 

= 

1. 58 
0.99 

1.06 
1.57 
1.49 
0.69 

1. 12 

0.49 

0.22 
0.32 

0.49 
0.40 
0.42 
0.39 

0.49 

6.94 

5. 27 
5.06 

7.33 
8.09 
8.09 
7.95 

6.94 

1.35 

1. 18 
1.24 

1.72 
1.62 
1.63 
1.60 

1. 35 

19.560 

Feeding  standards  and 

average  rations. 
American  experiments. 
Horses  with  light  work: 

T5,89S 

14,890 

Horses    with    moderate 
work: 
Express  and  cab  horses 

22,760 

22,710 

20,675 

work:  Farm  mules. 

19,560 

Truck      and      draft 
horses. 

1  From  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding,  by  C.  F.  Langworthy.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  170,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  1903,  p.  31. 

2  The  standard  salt  allowance  is  2  ounces  weekly. 


ANIMAL   DRAFT   POWER 


137 


RATIONS  FED   BY  LOGGERS 


Horses: 

Heavy   work   at   a 
sawmill,  Canada. 

15  pounds  hay. 

10  pounds  ground  grain. 

I  pound  bran. 

8  pounds  oats. 

Barley  /     ^.^  ^ 
Oats      r^°^- 

Maine   logging   op- 
eration. 

ID  J  pounds  com. 
12  pounds  oats. 
40  pounds  hay. 

Animals  weighing 
about  1600  pounds 
each. 

Mules: 

Louisiana     logging 
operation. 

13^  pounds  com-alfalfa. 
55  pounds  chops. 
16  pounds  hay. 

Animals  weighing 
about  1300  pounds 
each. 

Missouri       logging 
operation. 

8  pounds  oats. 

7  pounds  com. 

40  pounds  hay. 

Animals  weighing 
from  1200  to  1300 
pounds  each. 

Oxen: 

Mississippi  logging 
operation. 

20  pounds  cottonseed  hulls. 
5  pounds  cottonseed  meal. 
10  pounds  hay. 

Alabama      logging 
operation. 

21  pounds  corn. 

Com  fodder  (unlimited). 

Louisiana     logging 
operation. 

26  pounds  corn. 
14  pounds  hay. 

WEIGHT   OF   FEEDING   STUFFS    PER   QUART' 


Feeding  stuff. 

Pound. 

Ounces. 

I 
I 
I 
I 

I 
I 

I 

I 
I 
I 

12 
8 
6 

12 
14 
10 

8 

2 

13 
10 
II 

3 
2 
8 

1 

Oats,  whole 

Oats,  ground 

Wheat,  whole 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  bran,  coarse 

Wheat  middlings 

Wheat  middlings,  coarse 

Rye  bran 

Gluten  meal 

Gluten  feed 

Linseed  meal 

Cottonseed  meal. 

1  From  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Aninaals,  by  E.  W.  Allen.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  22,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  I90i>  P.  I9. 


138  LOGGING 

A  record  of  the  rations  fed  to  horses  and  mules  performing 
various  classes  of  labor  has  been  collected  and  published.  A 
portion  of  a  table  is  given  on  page  136  followed  on  page  137  by 
some  rations  fed  in  the  lumber  regions.  The  weight  of  animals 
to  which  the  latter  refers  is  not  known  definitely  and  a  close 
comparison  cannot  be  made.  They  are  of  interest,  however, 
because  they  show  variation  from  the  feeds  given  in  the  table. 

Some  of  these  materials,  especially  by-products  like  wheat 
bran,  vary  considerably  in  weight,  and  the  above  figures  can- 
not be  regarded  as  strictly  accurate  for  all  cases.  Weighing 
is,  of  course,  always  the  safer  way  where  it  is  desired  to 
feed  definite  amounts. 


WATER   REQUIREMENTS 

The  amount  of  water  required  by  horses  depends  largely 
upon  the  season  of  the  year,  the  temperature  of  the  air,  the 
character  of  the  feed,  the  individual  peculiarities  of  the  horse 
and  the  amount  and  character  of  the  work  performed.  The 
water  requirements  increase  with  a  rise  in  temperature  and  with 
the  amount  of  work  performed  since  both  factors  induce  per- 
spiration. 

Less  water  is  required  when  concentrated  or  green  succulent 
foods  are  fed  than  when  the  bulk  of  the  ration  consists  of  coarse 
fodder  or  of  dry  food.  A  horse  under  average  conditions  will 
drink  from  fifty  to  sixty-five  pounds  of  water  daily,  while  under 
heavy  work  or  during  warm  weather  from  85  to  no  pounds  will 
be  consumed.  Mules  in  Oklahoma,  during  hot  summer  weather, 
consumed  113  pounds  of  water  daily  with  a  minimum  of  107 
pounds  and  a  maximum  of  175.^  The  ration  was  composed  of 
grain  and  hay. 

Experiments  conducted  in  the  British  Army  showed  that 
horses,  when  allowed  to  drink  at  will,  consumed  about  one-fourth 
of  their  daily  allowance  in  the  morning,  about  three-eighths  at 
noon  and  the  remainder  at  night. 

1  See  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding,  by  C.  F.  Langworthy.  Farmers'  Bulletin, 
No.  170,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


ANIMAL  DRAFT  POWER  1 39 

European  experiments  demonstrated  that  the  time  of  drinking 
has  no  appreciable  effect  on  the  digestibiUty  of  the  food.  Animals 
may  be  watered  either  before  or  after  feeding  with  equally  good 
results,  but  it  is  desirable  to  always  observe  the  same  practice 
since  some  animals  do  not  feed  well  if  watered  after  feeding,  when 
they  are  accustomed  to  being  watered  before. 


CHAPTER  X 

SKIDWAYS   ANT>    STORAGE   SITES 

The  transport  of  timber  from  the  stump  to  the  manufacturing 
plant  generally  comprises  two  distinct  operations.^ 

(i)  Assembling  the  logs  at  depots,  called  skidways  or  yards, 
usually  near  the  point  of  felhng.  This  is  termed  skidding  or 
yarding,  and  may  be  accomphshed  by  manual  labor;  by  animal 
power  with  or  without  the  use  of  vehicles;  by  power-driven 
machinery;  or  by  log  slides  and  chutes. 

(2)  The  transport  of  the  assembled  logs  to  a  stream  or  to  the 
manufacturing  plant.  This  is  termed  hauling  and  is  most  fre- 
quently done  with  some  form  of  cart,  wagon,  sled,  railroad  or 
log  sHde. 

Skidding  and  hauhng  may  be  conducted  simultaneously,  as 
in  the  South  and  West  where  rail  transport  is  used,  or  at  dif- 
ferent seasons,  as  in  the  spruce  forests  of  New  England  where 
hauling  is  done  on  sleds. 

LOG  STORAGE  IN  THE  FOREST 

The  character  and  location  of  the  storage  points  depend  on 
the  manner  in  which  the  timber  is  to  be  hauled  and  on  the 
topography. 

For  Sled  Haul.  —  Where  sleds  are  used  the  skidway  consists 
of  a  skeleton  log  structure  built  crib-fashion,  and  so  placed  that 
the  logs  can  be  stored  parallel  with  the  road.  That  portion  of 
the  structure  nearest  the  road  should  be  at  least  as  high,  and 
when  practicable,  higher  than  the  sled  bunks,  so  that  a  portion 
of  the  load  can  be  put  on  by  hand.  The  rear  end  is  placed  on  a 
level  with  the  ground  in  order  that  logs  can  be  rolled  on  the 
bed  skids  without  difficulty. 

1  On  small  operations  the  logs  may  be  taken  direct  from  the  stump  to  the 
mill. 

140 


SKIDWAYS   AND   STORAGE   SITES  141 

Logs  are  decked  on  level  ground  to  a  height  of  from  20  to  30 
feet.  They  are  elevated  by  means  of  the  crosshaul,  operated  by 
animals.  A  "decking"  crew  is  made  up  of  four  or  five  men 
and  one  team.  The  equipment  comprises  four  cant  hooks,  two 
pole  skids  6  inches  in  diameter  and  from  8  to  10  feet  long,  and  a 
f-inch  crosshaul  chain  about  40  feet  long  with  a  grab  hook  on 
one  end. 

The  logs  are  brought  to  the  rear  of  the  skidway  and  are  then 
rolled  by  a  "tailer-in"  to  the  base  of  the  logs  already  decked. 
The  end  of  the  chain  carrying  the  hook  is  then  thrown  over  and 
under  the  center  of  the  log  to  be  decked,  after  which  the  hook  is 
fastened  to  one  of  the  decked  logs  just  below  the  spot  where  it  is 
desired  to  place  the  new  log.  The  free  end  of  the  chain  passes 
over  the  skidway  and,  if  the  pull  is  to  be  straight  away,  is  at- 
tached to  a  hook  on  the  double-tree. 

After  adjusting  the  chain,  skids  are  placed  against  the  decked 
logs,  and  the  team  is  started.  Two  "ground  loaders"  guide  the 
log  straight  up  the  skids  using  cant  hooks  for  this  purpose. 
Logs  with  taper,  crooks,  large  knots  and  similar  defects  seldom 
roll  straight  and  the  ground  loaders  must  be  on  their  guard  con- 
tinually. A  "top-loader"  who  stands  on  top  of  the  pile  of  logs 
directs  the  log  to  its  place,  frees  the  grab  hook  if  necessary  and 
also  directs  the  teamster.  The  direction  of  pull  may  be  modified 
to  meet  special  conditions.  For  instance,  instead  of  attaching 
the  chain  directly  to  the  double-tree  it  may  be  passed  through 
a  block  fastened  to  a  tree  directly  behind  the  skidway.  This 
enables  the  team  to  pull  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which 
the  log  is  traveling  and  is  of  especial  advantage  when  brush, 
boggy  ground  or  other  obstacles  prevent  a  straight-away  pull. 
The  chain  may  also  be  passed  through  a  block  and  brought 
forward  over  the  skidway  so  that  the  horses  pull  on  the  same  side 
on  which  the  logs  are  being  decked.  This  may  be  desirable 
where  there  is  a  bad  bottom  or  some  other  physical  hindrance 
to  the  usual  method  of  operating. 

Large  skidways  can  be  filled  most  economically  when  they 
are  built  in  tiers  on  slopes.  The  logs  are  then  dehvered 
above  the  skidway  and  rolled  to  the  levels  below.     Large  side- 


142 


LOGGING 


hill  skidways  may  contain  from  100,000  to  500,000  feet  log 
scale. 

During  hauling  time  skidways  may  be  places  of  transfer  from 
skidding  to  hauling  equipment  in  which  event  they  are  known  as 
"hot  skidways." 

When  sleds  are  used  for  hauling,  the  skidways  are  located  at 
convenient  points  along  the  logging  roads  which  lead  down  to  a 
landing  or  second  large  storage  yard  on  a  stream  down  which  the 


Fig.  26.  —  Skidways  along  a  Two-sled  Road.    Montana. 


logs  are  to  be  floated.  The  sites  for  skidways  should  be  selected 
by  the  logging  foreman  at  the  time  the  sled  roads  are  laid  out, 
and  the  routes  of  the  latter  should  be  chosen  with  reference  to 
good  skidway  sites  as  well  as  desirable  grades.  Provision  should 
be  made  for  a  down-hill  haul  from  the  stump  to  the  storage  point. 
Skidding  cannot  be  carried  on  profitably  for  long  distances  01?. 
level  ground,  consequently  a  flat  country  requires  the  greatest 
number  of  skidways.  Large  skidways  are  preferable  because 
there  is  less  snow  to  be  shoveled  off  at  loading  time,  and  the 


SKIDWAYS   AND    STORAGE   SITES  143 

construction  and  maintenance  of  a  minimum  mileage  of  road  is 
required. 

Landings. — -Temporary  storage  grounds,  called  "landings," 
are  made  along  the  banks  of  driveable  streams  or  on  the  edge  of 
lakes  where  logs  are  to  be  transported  by  water.  Their  form 
depends  on  the  character  of  the  stream  down  which  the  logs  are 
to  be  driven.  Where  the  stream  is  small  and  the  storage  area 
limited,  the  logs  are  hand-decked  from  15  to  30  feet  high,  in  the 
stream  bed,  parallel  to  the  banks.  When  a  large  volume  of  flood 
water  is  available  in  the  spring,  the  logs  may  be  dumped  promis- 
cuously into  the  stream  and  the  floods  relied  upon  to  carry 
them  out. 

Logs  placed  on  frozen  streams  or  lakes  are  scattered  over  a 
wide  area  in  order  to  save  the  labor  of  decking  and  to  prevent 
the  weight  of  the  logs  from  breaking  through  the  ice. 

For  Wagon  Haul.  —  Skid  ways  are  seldom  made  for  wagon 
hauling.  The  logs  are  bunched  in  the  forest  in  a  place  accessible 
to  the  wagons  and  are  loaded  with  the  crosshaul  and  taken  to  a 
skidway  along  the  railroad  or  direct  to  the  mill. 

For  Railroad  Haul.  —  These  vary  in  character  depending  on 
whether  the  logs  are  loaded  on  cars  by  animals  or  by  power. 

Skidwa}'  sites  for  animal  loading  with  the  crosshaul  should 
not  be  lower  than  the  track  because  it  is  too  difficult  to  handle 
the  logs.  A  straight  "get-away"  of  40  feet  should  be  provided 
on  the  side  of  the  track  opposite  the  skidway  where  the  loading 
team  can  travel  back  and  forth. 

An  area  several  hundred  feet  in  length  along  the  track  may  be 
cleared  for  storage  especially  if  the  stand  of  timber  is  heavy  and 
hauling  precedes  rail  transport  by  some  weeks  in  which  case 
the  skidway  can  then  be  used  but  once.  Where  hauling  is 
simultaneous  with  rail  transport,  skidways  are  filled  repeatedly 
and  less  storage  space  is  required. 

With  animal  loading  it  is  essential  that  the  logs  be  carefully 
piled  parallel  to  the  railroad  track.  The  skidways  consist  of 
two  continuous  rows  of  poles  placed  about  8  feet  apart  and  ex- 
tending at  right  angles  to  the  track  for  a  maximum  distance  of 
100  feet.     The  logs  are  brought  to  the  rear  of  the  skidv/ay  and 


144  LOGGING 

rolled  toward  the  track,  leaving  a  clearance  of  approximately 
lo  feet  between  the  first  log  and  the  rail.  Logs  are  seldom 
decked  more  than  four  high  as  it  is  more  economical  to  place 
new  skids  than  to  spend  time  in  decking. 

Where  power  loaders  are  used,  skidways  are  often  merely  areas 
along  the  track  from  which  the  brush  and  debris  have  been 
removed  so  that  the  teams  can  deliver  the  logs.  In  a  flat  region 
where  plenty  of  space  is  available  the  logs  are  seldom  decked. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  have  logs  arranged  parallel  to  the  track  or 
placed  on  skids  since  the  loader  can  pick  them  up  readily  at 
distances  not  to  exceed  loo  feet.  If  there  are  steep  slopes  near 
the  railroad,  logs  are  often  hauled  to  the  edge  and  rolled  down 
by  gravity,  forming  a  "rough  and  tumble"  skidway.  This  pro- 
vides a  large  storage  area  and  reduces  labor  in  handling  the  logs. 
Since  power  loaders  can  readily  pick  up  logs  several  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  track  the  logger  can  locate  his  railroad  without 
reference  to  loading  sites.     See  Fig.  78. 


CHAPTER  XI 

HAND   LOGGING  AND   ANIMAL  SNAKING 
HAND   LOGGING 

The  movement  of  logs  by  hand  from  the  stump  to  a  point 
where  they  can  be  reached  by  animals  is  commonly  practiced 
in  the  mountainous  region  of  the  Appalachians  and  is  known  as 
"brutting."  Trails  are  cleared  down  the  steep  slopes  and  the 
logs  are  rolled  to  a  stream  bed  or  flat  where  hand  labor  is  replaced 
by  animal  labor.  Hewed  crossties  are  frequently  made  in  rough 
mountain  regions  and  dragged  down  the  slopes  to  streams  or  to 
accessible  points. 

Hand  logging  is  also  practiced  in  the  white  cedar  {Chamacy- 
paris  thyoides)  forests  of  the  Coastal  Plain  region.  The  trees 
are  felled,  cut  into  sections  and  carried  by  men  or  carted  on 
wheelbarrows  over  plank  runs  to  a  light  tram  road  where  they 
are  loaded  on  small  cars  and  pushed  to  a  point  available  to  a 
stream  tram  road. 

Some  operators  in  the  cypress  swamps  of  this  region  cut  swaths, 
called  "creeks,"  at  half-mile  intervals  through  the  forests  locat- 
ing them  with  reference  to  the  current  when  the  swamp  is  flooded. 
These  are  made  during  a  dry  season  and  are  cut  from  50  to  150 
feet  wide  according  to  the  number  of  logs  that  are  to  be  floated 
down  them.  The  trees  which  have  been  girdled  for  about  a  year 
are  felled  and  cut  into  logs  during  a  dry  period  and  left  on  the 
ground  until  flood  waters  cover  the  swamp  to  a  depth  of  5  or  6 
feet.  Negro  laborers  are  then  taken  to  the  swamp  in  boats  and 
they  pole  the  logs,  sometimes  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  to  the 
nearest  "creek"  down  which  they  are  floated  to  the  rafting 
ground,  where  they  are  made  into  rafts,  and  then  towed  to  a 
mill. 

Hand  logging  was  common  on  the  Pacific  Coast  for  many 
years  before  the  industry  reached  its  present  development.     The 


146  LOGGING 

timber  was  felled  on  slopes  close  to  tidewater  or  some  driveable 
stream,  the  logs  were  rolled  into  the  water,  made  into  rafts  and 
sold  to  large  loggers  or  manufacturers  who  transported  them  to 
market.  Often  the  stumpage  was  not  the  property  of  the  logger 
who  cut  it  and  the  timber  was  sold  at  a  price  slightly  above  the 
cost  of  the  labor  expended  upon  it.  The  increase  in  the  value  of 
stumpage  and  the  greater  care  given  to  timber  properties  by  the 
owners  has  largely  eliminated  this  class  of  loggers  in  the  United 
States.  In  British  Columbia  hand  logging  is  still  practiced  to  a 
limited  extent  by  virtue  of  ''hand  logger's"  permits  issued  by 
the  Provincial  Government. 

The  introduction  of  modern  machinery  for  logging  has  given 
a  wider  meaning  to  the  term  hand  logging  on  the  Coast,  and  it 
is  now  applied  to  loggers  who  operate  on  a  small  scale  with 
animals. 

SNAKING    W^ITH    ANIMALS 

The  transportation  of  logs  with  animals  without  the  use  of 
vehicles  is  practiced  in  many  parts  of  the  country  either  to  take 
logs  from  the  stump  to  a  skidway  or  to  transport  them  for  longer 
distances  to  a  stream,  railroad,  chute  or  other  form  of  long- 
distance transport. 

The  first  is  usually  a  short-distance  method  and  the  logs  are 
taken  out  over  crude  trails  from  which  only  such  obstructions 
have  been  removed  as  are  necessary  to  make  snaking  feasible. 
The  usual  distance  for  snaking  on  level  or  gentle  slopes  does  not 
exceed  500  feet.  However,  logs  may  be  brought  from  the  stump 
to  skidways  1000  or  1200  feet  distant,  but  such  long  distances 
are  not  considered  advisable  except  where  there  is  a  downgrade, 
or  where  there  is  not  enough  timber  to  warrant  the  construction 
of  a  road  nearer  to  it. 

Animals  for  skidding  may  be  used  singly  or  in  teams  when 
horses  or  mules  are  employed,  or  in  single,  double  or  triple  yokes 
when  oxen  are  used.  The  number  of  animals  is  governed  by 
the  weight  of  the  timber  handled,  the  character  of  bottom  and 
the  grade  of  the  skidding  trail. 

In  the  spruce  region  of  the  Northeast,  two  animals  are  used 


HAND   LOGGING  AND  ANIMAL  SNAKING 


147 


Fig.  27.  —  Skidding  Trails  leading  down  to  a  Skidway  along  the 
Logging  Railroad.    West  Virginia. 


*?fei^  l^Hpifef 

SpR'- 

^^^^^St- 

liii|l'*^*li 

mm  f - 

Fig.  28. 


Oxen  skidding  a  Yellow  Pine  Log  containing  1200  Feet. 
Arkansas. 


148 


LOGGING 


to  yard  timber,  because  logs  are  cut  in  long  lengths,  while  in 
northern  New  York  single  animals  are  usually  employed  because 
the  timber  is  cut  in  short  lengths.  The  usual  practice  in  other 
legions  is  to  use  two  or  more  animals. 

Single  animals  have  been  tried  for  skidding  small  second- 
growth  loblolly  pine  in  the  Coastal  Plain  Region,  but  because 
of  the  heaviness  of  the  wood  and  the  enervating  climate  they 
have  not  proved  satisfactory. 


Fig.  29.  —  A  Skipper  Road  on  a  West  Virginia  Operation. 


The  second  method  is  common  in  the  rough  sections  of  the 
Appalachians  and  Pennsylvania,  where  horses  are  used  for 
snaking  logs  for  distances  not  exceeding  one  mile.  The  logs  are 
brought  down  trails  which  are  sometimes  so  steep  that  the  ani- 
mals must  be  returned  to  the  woods  by  a  more  circuitous  route. 
A  trail  is  made  6  or  8  feet  wide,  cleared  of  obstructions  and 
banked  on  the  outer  edge  with  skids  to  prevent  logs  from  leaving 
them.  Swamps  are  corduroyed,  streams  bridged  and  rough 
places  covered  with  "skippers."  These  are  timbers  8  or  10 
inches  in  diameter  and  12  feet  long  which  are  either  placed  zig- 


HAND    LOGGING   AND   ANIMAL   SNAKING  1 49 

zag  across  the  road,  the  angle  between  skippers  being  about 
60  degrees,  or  the  poles  are  placed  directly  across  the  trail  at  in- 
tervals of  from  4  to  6  feet.  Logs  often  drag  over  zigzag  skippers 
more  smoothly  than  over  those  placed  directly  across  the  trail. 
Rough  chutes  are  sometimes  built  in  the  stream  beds  to  cover 
rocks  and  other  obstructions,  when  it  is  necessary  to  divert  the 
trail  from  the  slopes  to  the  stream  bed.  Short-radius  curves 
are  undesirable  because  they  decrease  the  draft  power  of  the 
animals,  and  make  it  hard  to  keep  a  long  turn  of  logs  in  the  trail. 
Logs  are  brought  down  in  "turns"  made  up  of  several  logs 
fastened  in  single  file.  On  level  stretches  a  two-pole  chute  is 
sometimes  built  to  facilitate  dragging  (page  233).  They  are 
occasionally  used  on  gentle  slopes  if  the  bottom  is  rough. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  long-distance  snaking  has  been  replaced 
largely  by  road  engines  and  railroads,  because  animal  draft  is 
more  expensive  than  either  of  the  above  systems  for  distances 
of  three-fourths  of  a  mile  or  more.  Animals  are  still  used  to 
a  limited  extent  however,  for  short  hauls  on  small  operations. 
Skid  roads  built  for  animal  snaking  in  the  Northwest  are  care- 
fully located,  stumps  are  removed,  cuts  and  fills  made  and  the 
roadbed  leveled  so  that  a  desirable  grade  is  secured.  Skids  10 
feet  long  and  from  10  to  14  inches  in  diameter  are  laid  across  the 
completed  grade  at  lo-foot  intervals,  and  are  partly  buried  in 
the  ground  so  that  the  horses  can  step  over  them  easily.  Wet 
places  in  the  roadbed  are  covered  with  puncheons  split  from 
western  red  cedar,  to  provide  a  footing  for  animals.  A  "saddle" 
is  adzed  out  of  the  center  of  each  skid  and  in  this  the  log  rides. 
On  curves  the  skids  are  longer  and  are  either  elevated  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  curve  to  prevent  the  tow  of  logs  from  crowding 
into  the  bank  or  the  skids  are  laid  flat  and  the  elevation  is  se- 
cured by  placing  small  sloping  skids  on  the  inside  of  the  curve. 
The  latter  is  regarded  as  the  better  method  since  the  small  skids 
can  be  more  easily  placed  and,  if  necessary,  the  angle  of  inchna- 
tion  can  be  readily  changed.  On  level  stretches  the  saddles  are 
greased  to  reduce  friction.  Logs  are  fastened  together  by  means 
of  "grabs"  into  long  tows,  each  one  averaging  1000  board  feet 
per  horse.     A  team  on  a  road  of  this  character  formerly  consisted 


150  LOGGING 

of  from  eight  to  ten  yoke  of  oxen  but  they  have  been  replaced 
by  horses,  from  four  to  fourteen  constituting  one  team. 

Drumming. — A  primitive  form  of  skidding,  called  "drum- 
ming," is  employed  by  small  operators  in  the  mountain  regions 
of  the  Appalachians  where  the  slopes  are  too  steep  for  animal 
skidding,  too  rough  for  cheap  road  construction,  and  where  the 
size  of  the  operation  does  not  warrant  the  use  of  power-driven 
machinery. 

The  equipment  consists  of  a  large  drum,  hung  on  a  vertical 
axis,  placed  close  to  the  edge  of  the  plateau.  Fastened  to  the 
barrel  of  the  drum  is  a  long  horizontal  lever  arm  to  which  a  pair 
of  mules  are  hitched.  A  short  stout  pole  is  fastened  by  one  end 
to  this  lever  arm  and  the  other  end  drags  on  the  ground  in  the 
rear,  and  acts  as  a  brake  when  the  drum  is  in  operation.  A 
manila  cable  from  1500  to  2000  feet  long  is  attached  to  the  drum 
underneath  the  draft  pole  and  is  carried  down  the  slope  by 
men  and  fastened  to  a  log  with  grab  hooks.  The  mules  attached 
to  the  draft  pole  are  started  and,  as  the  drum  revolves,  the 
cable  is  wound  around  it  and  the  log  gradually  dragged  up  the 
slope.  Logs  are  drawn  over  the  escarpment,  or  other  rough 
places  in  a  chute  made  of  logs.  Trails  are  not  cut  out  for  the 
logs. 

SNAKING   EQUIPMENT 

The  first  essential  is  a  strong  leather  harness  for  horses  and 
mules,  and  suitable  yokes  for  cattle.  Horses  and  mules  when 
used  in  teams  are  coupled  together  in  pairs  and  require  a  set  of 
double-trees  or  a  spreader  and  two  single-trees  for  each  team. 
For  single  animals  a  spreader  only  is  required.  When  several 
teams  are  hitched  one  in  front  of  the  other  a  §-inch  draft  chain 
is  required  to  which  each  double-tree  is  fastened.  The  draft 
chains  for  oxen  are  attached  to  rings  on  the  yokes.  Various 
devices,  such  as  chokers,  tongs  and  grabs,  are  used  to  attach  the 
log  to  the  draft  power. 

Chokers.  —  A  choker  is  a  chain  from  12  to  16  feet  long,  made 
from  f-inch  iron  with  or  without  a  choker-hook  on  one  end. 
When  a  choker-hook  is  used,  the  end   carrying  it  is  thrown 


HAND   LOGGING   AND   ANIMAL   SNAKING 


ISI 


around  the  forward  part  of  a  log  to  be  skidded  and  the  chain 
caught  in  the  throat  of  the  hook  (Fig.  30,  a.) 

When  the  chain  has  no  attachments,  one  end  is  thrown  around 
the  forward  end  of  the  log,  looped  around  that  part  of  the  chain 
which  is  to  be  attached  to  the  draft,  after  which  it  is  wrapped 
several  times  around  the  chain  encircling  the  log.     When  power 


Ci  MORRIS  SKIDDING  GRABi 


^  fl   r\r\l  \Cii    c     r^rw  xat    c:r» 


DOUBLE   COUPLER     ^ 


Fig.  30.  —  Various  Forms  of  Equipment  used  in  Snaking  Logs,  a,  a  chain  choker. 
b,  skidding  tongs,  c,  a  common  form  of  skidding  grab,  d,  a  patent  skidding 
grab,  e,  the  "  J  "  hook  used  to  attach  the  tow  chain  to  a  turn  of  logs,  /andg 
two  forms  of  double  grabs  or  couplers,     h,  a  single  grab  or  coupler. 


is  applied  to  the  draft  end  of  the  chain  the  noose  around  the 
log  tightens  and  prevents  it  from  slipping.  The  choker  may  be 
used  for  single  logs,  or  several  small  logs  may  be  bound  together 
in  a  cluster  with  one  chain.  It  is  very  serviceable  because  it  is 
readily  adjustable  to  any  size  of  log. 

The  draft  end  of  the  chain  may  be  attached  by  a  hook  to 
a  ring  in  the  yoke  of  the  rear  pair  of  oxen,  or  to  a  ring  on  the 


152 


LOGGING 


double-tree  or  spreader  when  other  animals  are  used.  If  the 
chain  is  not  supplied  with  a  hook,  the  ring  on  the  double-tree  to 
which  the  chain  is  attached  is  made  with  a  narrow  throat  in  which 
a  hnk  of  the  chain  is  caught  and  held  securely.  The  ring  is  often 
replaced  by  a  grab  hook  in  which  the  chain  is  gripped.  The 
two  latter  forms  of  attachment  are  preferred  because  the  chain 
may  be  lengthened  or  shortened  at  will. 


Fig.  31.  —  A  Turn  of  Logs  at  the  Dump  aloni; 
fastened  together  with  "  single  coupler  "  grabs. 


Skii)i)LT   K.)a(l. 
West  Virginia. 


The  logs  are 


Tongs.  —  Tongs  which  may  replace  chokers  for  handling 
medium-sized  logs  are  made  from  round  or  octagon  steel  i|  or 
i^  inches  in  diameter,  and  have  a  spread  of  from  24  to  36  inches 
(Fig.  30,  h).  A  §-inch  chain  link  is  attached  to  each  short  arm 
of  the  tongs  and  these  Hnks  are  connected  by  a  5-inch  steel  ring. 
In  operation  this  ring  is  caught  in  a  hook  attached  to  the  double- 
tree but  occasionally  a  hook  is  attached  to  the  ring  on  the  skidding 
tongs,  in  which  case  the  hook  on  the  double-tree  is  replaced  with 
a  ring. 


HAND    LOGGING   AND   ANIMAL   SNAKING  153 

Grabs.  —  These  are  of  several  forms.  The  common  skidding 
grab  (Fig.  30,  c)  consists  of  two  hooks  each  one  of  which  is  at- 
tached to  a  short  f -inch  chain  which  in  turn  is  fastened  to  a  ring 
made  of  the  same  size  material.  The  hooks  are  driven  into  the 
wood  on  either  side  of  the  forward  end  of  the  log  and  grip  it  in  a 
manner  similar  to  a  pair  of  tongs.  The  grab  ring  is  attached 
directly  to  the  spreader  by  means  of  a  hook.  The  Morris  patent 
skidding  grab  (Fig.  30,  d)  consists  of  a  chain  having  a  large  ring  at 
each  end.  The  grab  hooks  are  attached  to  the  chain  by  narrow- 
throated  links  which  may  be  set  at  any  point  in  order  to  make  the 
distance  between  grabs  conform  to  the  size  of  the  log.     The  draft 


A 


GRAB  SKIPPER 


v 


GRAB   MAUL 


Fig.  32.  — ^  A  Type  of  Grab  Skipper  and  a  Grab  Maul  used  on  a  West 
Virginia  Logging  Operation, 

power  is  attached  to  another  narrow-throated  ring  which  can  be 
placed  midway  between  the  grabs  and  thus  equalize  the  power. 
On  steep  slopes  where  logs  are  apt  to  run,  a  form  of  grab  shown 
in  Fig.  30,  e  is  used.  The  spreader  ring  is  attached  to  the  "J" 
hook  and  when  logs  gain  too  great  headway  and  threaten  to  run 
into  the  horses,  the  latter  may  be  turned  to  one  side,  whereupon 
the  tow  of  logs  is  uncoupled  automatically.  Grabs  are  also  used 
to  couple  logs  together  in  turns  for  transportation  down  skidding 
roads.  There  are  several  different  patterns,  including  two  forms 
of  double  grabs  or  couplers  (Fig.  30,/  and  g)  used  for  the  forward 
logs  where  the  strain  is  greatest,  and  a  single  grab  or  coupler 
(Fig.  30,  h),  for  the  rear  logs. 

A  metal-banded  wooden  maul  or  a  sledge  hammer  is  used  for 
driving  grabs  and  a  pointed  sledge  hammer,  called  a  "skipper," 
for  removing  them. 


154  LOGGING 

CREWS    AND    DAILY    OUTPUT 

In  the  northern  forests  a  crew  usually  consists  of  two  or  three 
teamsters,  one  or  more  swampers  and  one  skidway  man.  One 
or  more  animals  are  assigned  to  each  crew. 

In  the  open  pine  forests  of  the  South  where  there  is  a  minimum 
of  trail-building,  one  or  more  teamsters  may  work  alone,  doing 
their  own  swamping  and  skidway  work.  The  usual  practice, 
however,  is  to  have  swampers  prepare  the  logs. 

The  daily  amount  of  work,  measured  in  thousand  feet,  log 
scale,  performed  by  a  team  depends  on  the  size  of  logs,  the  length 
of  haul,  the  character  of  bottom  and  the  grade.  The  size  of  log 
is  an  important  factor  because  small  logs  show  a  low  log  scale  in 
comparison  to  their  weight  and  while  several  may  be  skidded  at 
one  time,  their  total  scale  may  be  considerably  below  that  of  a 
single  log  which  can  be  handled  as  readily  and  in  less  time. 

The  number  of  logs  skidded  in  a  given  time  is  not  proportional 
to  the  distance.  Animals  when  once  in  motion  will  consume 
less  time  travehng  the  second  one  hundred  feet  than  they  did  the 
first,  provided  the  log  is  not  so  heavy  as  to  require  stops  every  few 
feet.  The  time  saved  on  the  shorter  haul  may  be  lost  very  easily 
at  the  skidway  or  at  the  stump.  A  soft  or  rough  bottom  or  one 
covered  with  large  roots,  stumps  and  other  obstructions  is  pro- 
hibitive of  speed  and  cuts  down  the  daily  output.  Steep  grades 
increase  the  number  of  logs  that  can  be  handled  at  one  time. 

When  skidding  with  two  animals,  either  horses  or  mules,  and 
handhng  timber  that  averages  from  six  to  nine  logs  per  thousand 
feet,  log  scale,  a  day's  work,  ten  hours,  ranges  between  io,oco 
and  15,000  feet  for  distances  up  to  500  feet.  A  daily  average  of 
10,000  feet  during  a  month  is  considered  good.  For  750  feet 
the  average  ranges  between  8000  and  12,000  feet,  log  scale  and 
for  1000  feet,  from  3000  to  4500  feet,  log  scale.  A  two-yoke 
team  of  oxen  will  average  approximately  the  same  number  of 
feet  per  day  as  a  good  pair  of  mules  or  horses. 

BffiLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE   ON   CHAPTER    XI 

Margolin,  Louis:   The  Hand  Loggers  of  British  Columbia.     Forestry  Quar- 
terly, Vol.  IX  ,  No.  4,  pp.  562-567. 


CHAPTER  XII 

SLEDS  AND  SLED-HAULING 
THE    GO-DEVIL 

Snaking  is  frequently  supplemented  by  the  use  of  sleds. 

A  sled  known  as  a  go-devil,  travois  or  crotch  is  employed  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  during  the  summer  and 
early  fall  and  sometimes  in  the  winter. 


Fig.  33.  —  A  Go-devil  loaded  with  Hardwood  Logs.     Michigan. 


The  go-devil  is  a.  product  of  the  camp  blacksmith  shop.  It  is 
a  rough  sled  having  two  unshod  hardwood  runners,  which  are 
preferably  of  yellow  birch,  selected  from  timbers  having  a  natural 
crook.     The  usual  type  of  runner  is  from  6  to  7I  feet  long,  6 

15s 


156  LOGGING 

inches  wide,  and  from  3  to  5  inches  thick.  A  6-inch  by  6-inch  by 
4-foot  or  5-foot  bunk  is  fastened  to  each  runner  by  a  bolt.  The 
bunk  is  placed  from  2  to  2^  feet  from  the  rear  end  of  the  runners. 
A  ring  is  attached  to  the  center  of  this  bunk  and  the  logs  are 
bound  on  the  latter  by  a  chain  passing  around  the  logs  and  bunk 
and  through  the  ring.  The  curved,  forward  ends  of  the  runners 
are  connected  by  a  roller  which  has  a  short  chain  at  each  end 
that  passes  through  a  hole  in  the  forward  end  of  the  runner  and 
is  fastened  several  inches  back  on  it.  Since  the  go-devil  has 
no  tongue  it  can  be  turned  around  in  a  small  space.  The  draft 
rigging  consists  of  chains  fastened  to  either  side  of  the  bunk  or 
to  the  runners.  The  chains  are  brought  forward  and  joined 
directly  in  front  of  the  roller  by  a  ring  to  which  the  hook  on  the 
double-tree  is  attached. 

Since  go-devils  are  loosely  constructed,  there  is  consider- 
able backward  and  forward  play  in  the  runners  and  if  one  of 
them  becomes  obstructed  the  other  moves  ahead  and  starts  it. 

Go-devils  are  seldom  used  for  distances  less  than  300  feet, 
except  under  adverse  snaking  conditions.  They  may  be  used 
for  a  quarter  of  a  mile  on  snow  but  are  not  as  economical  as 
larger  sleds  for  this  distance.  Trails  are  required  and  these  are 
cut  by  the  swampers  as  they  prepare  the  logs  for  skidding. 


THE    LIZARD 

A  crude  form  of  sled  called  a  lizard  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
pine  forests  of  the  South  when  the  ground  becomes  too  soft  for 
wheels.  They  are  not  serviceable  on  very  muddy  ground  because 
the  nose  digs  too  deeply  into  the  soil. 

The  lizard  is  made  from  the  natural  fork  of  an  oak,  hewed  flat 
on  the  upper  and  lower  side,  with  an  upward  sweep  on  the 
forward  end  so  that  it  can  slide  over  obstructions  easily.  About 
two-thirds  of  the  distance  from  the  front  end  the  two  prongs  are 
spanned  by  a  bunk  bolted  solidly  to  them.  The  draft  chain  is 
fastened  to  this  bunk  and  also  passes  around  the  log  and  through 
a  hole  in  the  upturned  nose.  Lizards  are  made  in  the  camp 
blacksmith  shop. 


SLEDS   AND    SLED-HAULING 


157 


YARDING    SLEDS 

It  is  often  desirable  to  yard  or  skid  logs  for  distances  over  a 
quarter  of  a  mile,  especially  when  the  amount  of  timber  does 
not  warrant  the  construction  of  a  two-sled  road,  or  the  haul  from 
the  stump  to  the  landing  or  to  the  railroad  does  not  exceed  if 
miles  and  the  grade  is  favorable. 

Snaking  and  go-devils  are  replaced  in  such  cases  by  yarding 
sleds  or  drays  in  the  Northeast  and  by  a  "jumbo  dray"  or  a 
"bob"  in  the  Lake  States  and  the  Adirondacks. 


Fig.  34.  —  A  Yarding  Sled  used  in  the  Northeast. 


The  yarding  sled  is  made  by  the  camp  blacksmith  and  consists 
of  a  pair  of  yellow  birch  or  maple  runners,  7  feet  long,  3  inches 
wide  and  shod  with  |-inch  steel  shoes.  The  forward  ends  are 
curved  upward.  The  runners  are  held  together  by  a  bunk  8 
inches  square  and  4  or  5  feet  long,  placed  about  3  feet  from  the 
rear  end  of  the  sled.  In  order  to  facilitate  handling  the  sled  the 
bunk  is  made  in  two  parts;  namely,  a  lower  stationary  bar 
fastened  securely  to  the  runners  by  pins,  called  "starts,"  and 
braced  by  heavy  iron  straps  ot  "raves,"  and  an  upper  bar  which 


158  LOGGING 

is  temporarily  removed  when  the  sled  is  turned  around  in  the 
woods.  The  upper  bunk  has  grooves  cut  on  the  ends  or  on  the 
sides,  and  these  grooves  fit  around  the  starts,  which  are  mortised 
in  the  lower  bunk  and  fastened  to  the  runners. 

Several  logs  with  the  forward  ends  supported  on  the  bunk  and 
the  rear  ends  dragging  on  the  ground  can  be  loaded  on  a  yarding 
sled. 


ySled  Bar 


DOUBLE  SCHOODIC  SINGLE  SCHOODIC 


/m^  .^^i\/P 


WEAVERS  BIND 
Fig.  35.  —  Methods  of  fastening  Logs  to  the  Bunk  of  a  Yarding  Sled. 

The  equipment  consists  of  two  f-inch  chains  18  or  20  feet  long 
which  are  used  to  fasten  the  logs  to  the  bunk  of  the  sled.  Each 
chain  has  a  grab  hook  on  one  end  and  a  bunk  hook  on  the  other. 
The  use  of  chains  in  binding  logs  is  shown  in  Fig.  35.  A  third 
chain  is  sometimes  used  to  bind  the  rear  end  of  the  load. 

Two  horses  are  used  for  hauling  yarding  sleds,  except  on 
long  hauls  or  unfavorable  grades,  when  four  may  be  employed. 

An  average  load  is  five  large  logs,  or  seven  or  eight  small  ones, 
the  total  averaging  from  700  to  1000  feet,  log  scale.  Five  thou- 
sand feet  is  an  average  day's  work  for  a  team  and  sled  on  a  haul 
of  ^-mile.  The  cost  per  thousand  feet  for  teaming  expense 
under  such  conditions  averages  from  75  to  90  cents. 


In  the  Lake  States  and  in  the  Adirondacks  where  yarding 
sleds  are  not  used,  a  "bob"  performs  similar  work.  It  consists 
of  the  front  runners  of  a  "two-sled,"  equipped  with  chains  for 


SLEDS   AND    SLED-HAULING  1 59 

binding  on  the  logs.     It  is  adapted  for  hauls  under  three-fourths 
of  a  mile  where  the  distance  is  too  great  for  snaking. 

From  ten  to  sixteen  logs  may  be  hauled  at  one  time  on  favor- 
able grades. 

THE  "jumbo" 

The  jumbo,  a  modification  of  the  go-devil,  is  used  on  a  snow 
haul  in  the  Lake  States,  for  distances  not  exceeding  |-mile,  where 
the  conditions  do  not  warrant  the  use  of  heavy  sleds. 

It  consists  of  twin-sleds,  similar  in  construction  to  go-devils, 
joined  together  by  cross-chains,  with  a  distance  between  bunks 
of  about  9  feet.  The  runners  are  8  feet  long  and  have  a  6|-foot 
to  7 -foot  gauge.  Two  go-devils  may  be  fastened  together  and 
used  instead  of  special  sleds.  The  jumbo  will  carry  from  1000 
to  1500  feet,  log  scale. 

Roads  must  be  cut  out,  stumps  removed  and  swamps  cordu- 
royed, but  the  cost  of  road  construction  is  less  than  for  two-sleds. 

THE    TWO-SLED 

The  transportation  of  logs  from  the  skidway  to  a  landing  on 
streams,  to  a  railroad  or  to  a  mill  is  often  effected  by  means  of 
a  heavy  sled  called  the  "two-sled,"  "twin-sled"  or  "wagon- 
sled."  The  gauge  of  sleds  and  minor  features  of  construction 
vary  with  the  weight  of  the  loads,  length  of  logs  that  are  to  be 
hauled  and  also  with  the  ideas  of  the  individual  foremen,  the 
essential  features,  however,  being  similar.  Some  prefer  a  wide 
gauge  sled  since  the  horses  do  not  walk  in  the  runner  tracks  and 
the  latter  can  be  kept  free  from  manure. 

A  sled  used  on  a  Maine  operation  had  runners  io|  feet  long, 
4  inches  broad,  7  inches  high,  which  were  shod  with  flat  4-inch 
steel  shoes.  The  gauge  was  5I  feet.  The  runners  were  braced 
near  the  center  by  a  transverse  bar  called  a  bunk,  which  was 
fastened  to  them  by  a  wrought-iron  casting,  called  a  "dexter" 
or  "sled  knee."  A  rocker  rested  on  the  bunk  of  the  forward  sled. 
This  rocker  could  turn  around  a  king-pin  that  passed  through 
it  and  the  bunk.  The  forward  runners  were  also  strengthened 
by  a  flat  roller  rounded  on  the  ends  and  fitted  in  circular  holes  in 
the  sled  noses.     To  this  roller  the  sled  tongue  was  mortised. 


[6o 


LOGGING 


When  two  teams  were  used  for  hauling  a  sled,  a  false  tongue  was 
slung  on  rings  under  the  main  pole,  projecting  ahead  far  enough 
to  accomodate  the  forward  pair  of  horses.  This  pole  enabled  the 
lead  team  to  assist  in  steering  the  sled.  The  rear  runners  were 
similar  to  the  forward  pair,  with  the  omission  of  the  tongue  and 
rocker.  Two-sleds  are  made  from  well-seasoned  oak,  maple  or 
birch.  The  woodwork  on  a  sled  lasts  from  three  to  four  seasons 
but  the  nmner  shoes  must  be  renewed  annually. 


Photograph  by  E.  B.  Mason. 

Fig.  36.  —  A  Loaded  Two-sled,  showing  the  Binding  Chains  and  a  Potter 

(on  the  left).     New  Hampshire. 

The  front  and  rear  sleds  are  often  joined  by  two  |-inch  or 
|-inch  chains  attached  to  the  back  side  of  the  forward  bunk, 
directly  over  the  runners,  then  crossed  and  attached  to  the  noses 
of  the  rear  runners.  The  length  of  the  chains  is  adjustable  so 
as  to  adapt  the  distance  between  the  forward  and  rear  bunks  to 
the  length  of  logs  being  hauled.  On  rough  roads,  when  light 
sleds  are  used,  and  when  logs  of  medium  and  fairly  uniform  length 
are  being  hauled,  the  cross  chains  may  be  replaced  by  a  "goose- 


SLEDS   AND    SLED-HAULING  l6l 

neck,"  which  is  a  V-shaped  pair  of  thills.  They  have  a  hook  on 
the  apex  by  which  they  are  attached  to  a  ring  on  the  back  side  of 
the  forward  bunk  and  the  divergent  ends  of  the  goose-neck  are 
fastened  to  the  roller  ends  of  the  rear  sled.  The  length  of  the 
goose-neck  is  from  i6  to  i8  feet,  which  gives  a  distance  of  21  or 
23  feet  between  the  rear  bunk  and  the  forward  rocker.  When 
the  empty  sled  is  ready  to  return  from  the  landing  to  the  skidway, 
it  is  customary  to  unhook  the  goose-neck,  turn  it  back  on  the 
rear  pair  of  runners  and  couple  the  sleds  close  together  by  means 
of  cross  chains. 

The  cost  of  construction  of  a  two-sled  in  a  camp  blacksmith 
shop,  including  labor  and  materials  is  between  $50  and  $75. 
Dealers  in  logging  supphes  quote  them  at  prices  ranging  from 
$100  to  $150. 

SLED    ROADS 

Yarding  Sled  Roads.  —  Roads  for  yarding  sleds  are  laid  out 
by  the  camp  foreman.  Several  main  roads  diverge  from  the 
skidways  generally  going  up  the  slopes,  and  from  these,  branch 
roads  are  built  directly  to  the  logs. 

Main  roads  are  built  5  or  6  feet  wide,  stumps  are  cut  level  with 
the  grade  and  all  brush,  fallen  timber  and  boulders  cleared  away. 
The  road  is  roughly  graded,  holes  and  depressions  are  filled  with 
brush  or  dirt,  streams  are  spanned  with  crib  bridges,  swamps  are 
corduroyed  and  cross-skids  are  frequently  placed  across  the  road 
at  intervals  of  from  10  to  20  feet  to  prevent  the  runners  from 
cutting  up  the  road.  Side-skids  may  also  be  placed  along  the 
lower  side  of  the  road  to  prevent  the  sleds  from  leaving  it.  On 
side  slopes,  the  outer  edge  of  the  road  may  be  built  up  by  laying 
skids  parallel  to  the  road  and  then  placing  short  skids  2  or  3 
feet  apart  across  them.     This  crowds  the  sled  towards  the  bank. 

Main  yarding  roads  are  generally  built  by  a  special  road  crew. 
The  secondary  roads  are  laid  out  and  constructed  by  the  swamp- 
ers while  preparing  the  logs  for  skidding.  Easy  grades  are  de- 
sirable both  for  main  and  secondary  roads,  but  are  not  absolutely 
essential  because  the  speed  of  loaded  sleds  can  be  checked  on 
steep  pitches  by  a  "snub-line  "  or  a  ''bridle." 


l62 


LOGGING 


The  snub-line  consists  of  a  i|-inch  or  2 -inch  manila  rope,  one 
end  of  which  is  fastened  securely  to  the  load.  The  other  end  is 
given  two  or  three  turns  around  a  stump  at  the  head  of  the  grade 
and  gradually  paid  out  as  the  sled  descends,  the  speed  being 
controlled  by  means  of  a  brake  on  the  stump. 

A  bridle  is  a  chain  passed  around  a  runner  in  front  of  the  bunk. 
It  is  put  on  and  removed  as  circumstances  demand.  A  clevis 
attached  under  the  forward  part  of  a  runner  sometimes  replaces 
it.     Bridles  can  only  be  used  on  smooth  ground,  otherwise  the 


Fig.  37. 


Yarding-sled  Trails  leading  down  to  a  Skidway  on  a 
Two-sled  Road.     Maine. 


chains  catch  on  roots  and  other  obstructions  and  stop  the  sled. 
Tail  chains,  which  bind  together  the  rear  end  of  the  load,  also 
act  as  impediments  and  assist  in  the  control  of  the  sleds.  Aided 
by  any  of  these  devices,  teams  with  loaded  sleds  can  go  down 
slopes,  up  which  they  cannot  return  with  empty  sleds.  The 
general  scheme  of  roads  is  shown  in  Fig.  37. 

The  cost  of  constructing  main  yard  roads  ranges  between  $60 
and  $100  per  mile. 

Two-sled  Roads.  —  The  road  system  for  an  operation  on  which 
the  logs  are  to  be  transported  on  two-sleds,  comprises  a  main 


SLEDS  AND   SLED-HAULING 


163 


road  over  which  all  the  traffic  passes  to  the  landing,  and  second- 
ary roads  which  radiate  from  it  to  the  skidways.  The  roads  are 
laid  out  by  the  camp  foreman  usually  without  the  aid  of  survey- 
ing instruments,  although  in  recent  years,  progressive  woodsmen 
have  adopted  a  hand  level  for  the  determination  of  grades. 

The  main  road  location  is  the  more  important  because  it  is  the 
route  over  which  fully  loaded  sleds  pass.  These  roads  often 
follow  the  valley  of  some  stream  from  the  woods  operation  to 
the  landing,  crossing  and  recrossing  the  watercourse  as  often  as 


Fig.  38.  —  A  Yarding-sled  Road  built  up  on  a  Curve  to  prevent  the 
Sleds  from  leaving  the  Road.     Maine. 


necessary  to  maintain  the  desired  grade.  A  minimum  number  of 
bridges  is  desirable  because  they  are  expensive  to  construct  and 
to  maintain.  In  order  that  logs  can  be  hauled  on  a  down- 
grade from  the  secondary  roads  to  the  main  road,  the  latter 
should  be  located  on  the  lower  levels  of  the  tract. 

A  main  road  of  easy  descending  grades  is  preferred  because 
on  grades  in  excess  of  5  per  cent,  heavy  loads  gain  too  much 
headway  and  it  is  necessary  to  place  hay,  straw,  gravel,  sand  or 
brush  on  the  road  to  check  the  speed.  It  is  more  satisfactory 
and  often  cheaper  in  the  end  to  make  cuts  or  to  detour  ascending 
grades  rather  than  to  return  by  them. 


164  LOGGING 

Dead-level  pulls  should  be  avoided  because  more  power  is 
required  to  move  loads  on  such  places  than  on  gently  descend- 
ing grades.  Sharp  curves  are  especially  dangerous  on  steep 
pitches  because  the  load  cannot  be  held  in  check  by  the  ani- 
mals and  the  sled  is  apt  to  leave  the  road  under  the  momentum 
attained. 

Turnouts  are  provided  at  the  end  of  long,  straight  stretches 
on  low-grade  roads,  while  on  steep  mountain  roads  a  "go-back" 
road  is  built  on  which  the  empty  sleds  return. 

Secondary  roads  are  inferior  in  construction  to  the  main  ones 
because  they  may  be  used  for  one  season  only,  and  a  smaller 
amount  of  timber  is  brought  out  over  them.  Fewer  roads  can 
be  used  in  a  rough  or  rolling  region  than  in  a  flat  country  because 
the  downgrade  permits  skidding  for  longer  distances. 

Two-sled  roads  should  be  built  during  the  summer  or  early 
fall  before  the  ground  freezes  and  snow  falls.  The  days  are 
then  long  and  the  unfrozen  earth  can  be  handled  to  best  advan- 
tage. On  new  operations,  road  work  follows  camp  construction, 
while  on  other  operations  the  roadmen  come  in  a  short  time  in 
advance  of  the  regular  camp  crew,  or  simultaneous  with  it. 
It  is  often  necessary,  however,  to  construct  a  tote  road,  from 
the  base  of  supplies  to  the  camp  site,  previous  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  camp.  Roadmen  are  chosen  from  the  most 
inefficient  workers  in  camp,  because  in  such  work  little  skill  is 
required. 

The  right-of-way  having  been  blazed  out  by  the  camp  fore- 
man, the  "road-monkeys,"  as  the  men  are  called,  proceed  to 
fell  a  strip  of  timber  from  20  to  30  feet  wide  along  the  proposed 
route.  The  merchantable  timber  is  cut  into  saw  logs  which 
may  be  left  at  one  side  of  the  road,  or  skidded  to  the  nearest 
skidway  site.  Depressions  are  filled  with  rotten  logs  and  sound 
non-merchantable  species.  The  latter  are  also  used  for  corduroy, 
bridge  construction  and  skids.  Large  stumps  are  grubbed,  sawed 
level  with  the  ground  or  blasted  out;  boulders  are  removed;  and 
cuts  are  made  to  reduce  heavy  grades.  Two-sled  roads  often 
present  a  rough  appearance  before  snow  falls,  because  of  the 
uneven  nature  of  the  roadbed,  but  the  first  heavy  snow  fills  the 


SLEDS   AND    SLED-HAULING 


I6S 

a  solid  bed  over 


depressions  and  smooths  off  the  road  makin 
which  the  sleds  may  pass. 

Swamps  containing  live  springs  are  a  source  of  annoyance 
when  the  road  must  pass  over  them,  because  they  are  the  last 
part  of  the  road  to  freeze  over  in  the  fall  and  the  first  part  to 
thaw  in  the  early  spring,  and  should,  therefore,  be  avoided  when 
practicable.  When  the  road  crosses  low  marshy  grounds  or 
swamps,  corduroy  is  used,  which  serves  to  give  a  broad  bearing 


■A  Two-sled  Road,  showinj;;  the  Method  of  building  up 
the  Grade  on  Side  Slopes. 


surface  to  the  road  and  prevents  the  sled  runners  from  sinking 
into  the  mud.  An  average  day's  work  for  one  man  is  to  cut  poles 
for  and  build  one  rod  of  corduroy.  The  cost  ranges  between 
60  cents  and  $2  per  running  rod. 

When  roads  are  built  on  side  slopes,  the  upper  side  is  cut  down 
and  the  lower  side  raised  by  laying  long  skids  parallel  to  the 
outer  edge  of  the  road  and  placing  short  transverse  skids  on 
them.  The  space  between  the  skids  may  be  filled  with  brush, 
or  left  vacant  and  snow  allowed  to  fill  the  interstices.  On  roads 
where  the  traffic  is  heavy  the  slope  is  either  cut  down  enough 


1 66  LOGGING 

to  make  a  solid  roadway,  or  else  an  abutment  of  logs  is  built 
up  on  the  low  side. 

Streams  and  dry  watercourses  are  bridged  with  structures 
made  from  round  timbers.  Bridges  are  the  first  part  of  a  sled 
road  to  weaken.  They  should  be  built  on  a  slight  downgrade, 
if  possible,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  loaded  sleds.  The 
usual  type  is  one  whose  floor  is  supported  on  parallel  stringers, 
from  12  to  15  inches  in  diameter  resting  on  abutments  and  piers 
which  are  made  of  logs  from  12  to  18  inches  in  diameter,  built 
up  in  crib-fashion.  The  piers  are  10  or  12  feet  square  and  are 
commonly  placed  from  12  to  16  feet  apart,  and  filled  with  stone 
to  give  them  stability.  The  floor  is  made  of  skids  from  6  to  10 
inches  in  diameter,  placed  across  the  stringers  close  enough  to 
form  a  solid  roadbed,  and  on  these  a  thick  covering  of  bark  is 
spread  to  hold  the  snow,  and  prevent  the  sled  track  from  break- 
ing up  when  the  load  passes  over  it.  The  skids  are  held  in  place 
by  stringers  which  are  laid  on  top  of  them,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  bridge. 

Piers  are  not  adapted  for  use  in  a  stream  bed,  because  freshets 
are  apt  to  carry  them  away.  Under  such  circumstances  or  where 
the  bridge  crosses  a  wide  stream  the  cribs  are  placed  from  20  to 
25  feet  apart  and  the  stringers  are  supported  between  them  by 
piles  driven  to  bed  rock  at  intervals  of  8  or  10  feet. 

When  the  stream  is  too  wide  for  a  single  span,  the  cribs  may 
be  built  in  the  water,  heavily  loaded  with  stone  and  provided 
with  a  "rake"  on  the  upstream  face  to  divert  refuse  and  ice  to 
either  side  of  the  crib.  When  long  spans  are  employed  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  use  five  stringers.  Deep  depressions  often  are  filled 
with  cribbing  built  up  to  grade  level. 

On  roads  where  the  snow  drifts  badly  snowsheds  are  occa- 
sionally built  in  order  to  keep  the  road  open  with  a  minimum  of 
of  hand  shoveling.  They  also  are  employed  on  steep  pitches  to 
keep  the  ground  free  from  snow,  so  that  the  speed  of  sleds  can  be 
controlled.  Snowsheds  are  built  in  several  different  forms  one 
of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  40. 

The  framework  is  constructed  of  poles  6  or  8  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  heavy  brush  is  placed  on  the  sides  and  roof  to  prevent 


SLEDS   AND   SLED-HAULING 


167 


the  entrance  of  snow.  The  height  and  width  of  the  sheds  is 
dependent  on  the  size  of  the  sleds  used  and  the  maximum  height 
of  loads  hauled. 

The  cost  of  two-sled  roads  ranges  from  $150  to  $800  per  mile, 
the  average  seldom  exceeding  $500. 


Fig.  40.  —  A  Snow  Shed  on 


Photograph  by  D.  N.  Rogers 

Two-sled  Road.     Maine. 


They  require  at  least  from  8  to  1 2  inches  of  snow  for  successful 
operation  and  in  the  Lake  States  and  the  Northeast  conditions 
are  seldom  favorable  for  their  use  until  the  middle  or  latter  part 
of  December.  Hauling  begins  at  this  time  and  continues  without 
interruption  until  the  logs  are  all  on  the  landing,  or  until  the 
season  breaks  up  and  the  snow  leaves  the  roads. 

Three  machines  play  an  important  part  in  the  maintenance 
of  a  main  two-sled  road;  namely,  the  snowplow,  the  rutter  and 
the  sprinkler.     They  are  frequently  made  by  the  camp  black- 


l68  LOGGING 

smith,  but  snowplows  and  rutters  are  also  sold  by  dealers  in 
logging  supplies. 

Plows  are  employed  after  each  heavy  snowfall  to  clear  a 
right-of-way  along  the  road  wide  enough  to  permit  loaded  sleds 
to  pass.  They  are  built  in  several  patterns.  A  common  type  is 
V-shaped,  with  flaring  sides  4  feet  high  which  are  bolted  to  a 
heavy  pair  of  runners.  The  plow  is  drawn  by  from  eight  to 
sixteen  horses.  Patent  steel  snowplows  weighing  about  2000 
pounds  can  be  bought  for  $175.  They  can  be  made  in  camp 
for  from  $35  to  $50. 

The  snowplow  is  followed  by  the  rutter  which  cuts  a  square 
or  round  rut  for  the  sled  runners.  The  machine  is  mounted  on 
a  heavy  set  of  runners  and  has  two  chisel-like  blades  which  may 
be  raised  or  lowered  so  that  a  rut  of  any  desired  depth  can  be 
secured.  Snowplows  and  rut  cutters  are  often  combined  in 
one  machine,  especially  in  those  patterns  offered  by  logging 
supply  houses.  A  rut  cutter  can  be  purchased  for  from  $100 
to  $115. 

Long  hauls,  ascending  grades  and  long,  level  stretches  are 
iced  so  that  larger  loads  can  be  hauled.  A  road  on  which  four 
or  more  trips  can  be  made  daily  is  not  iced  unless  a  large  amount 
of  timber  is  to  be  hauled  over  it.  Descending  grades  and 
secondary  roads  are  not  iced. 

The  sprinkler  consists  of  a  tank  about  8  feet  by  6  feet  by  5  feet 
in  size,  built  of  dressed  and  matched  plank,  and  mounted  on  a 
heavy  pair  of  sleds.  It  costs  about  $50.  The  tank,  which  holds 
from  30  to  35  barrels  of  water,  will  sprinkle  from  one-fourth  to 
one- third  of  a  mile  of  road.  A  short  piece  of  i-inch  iron  pipe  is 
fitted  into  each  of  the  rear  lower  corners  of  the  tank  directly  over 
the  sled  ruts.  An  overhanging  piece  of  sheet  iron  is  attached  so 
that  it  hangs  over  the  opening  in  the  pipes  and,  when  the  wooden 
plugs  are  pulled  out  of  the  latter,  the  water  plays  on  this  sheet 
and  throws  a  spray  over  the  rut,  which  on  freezing  makes  a  solid 
ice  coating. 

A  water  heater  consisting  of  a  round  wrought  steel  tube  18 
inches  in  diameter  equipped  with  a  smoke  pipe  and  a  fire  door 
is  sometimes  placed  in  the  tank.     A  fire  built  in  it  prevents  the 


SLEDS  AND   SLED-HAULING 


169 


water  from  freezing.  Sprinklers  are  filled  either  by  gravity  from 
a  spring  or  brook,  or  else  water  is  drawn  up  in  a  barrel  by  means 
of  a  cable  and  horse  draft. 

The  rutting  and  sprinkhng  are  done  by  a  special  crew  who 
usually  operate  at  night  and  whose  sole  duty  is  to  keep  the  road 
in  shape  for  hauHng.  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  in  addition 
to  such  men  as  are  required  continually  at  points  where  grades 
must  be  sanded,  or  snubbing  devices  operated,  one  man  can 
keep  two  miles  of  main  road  in  repair.  One  four-horse  team  and 
two  men  can  operate  the  sprinkler  on  from  4  to  6  miles  of  road. 


Fig.  41.  —  A  Sprinkler  being  filled  with  Water  from  a  Brook.     Maine. 


The  average  monthly  maintenance  charge  on  a  6-mile  haul  on  a 
Maine  operation  was  approximately  $75  per  mile.  Other  work 
required  to  maintain  a  two-sled  road  consists  of  shoveling  out 
deep  drifts  after  storms,  banking  and  skidding  up  roads  on  side 
hills,  where  the  sleds  "slough"  to  one  side  and  keeping  a  snow 
covering  on  bridges. 

After  one  season's  work  a  road  requires  a  general  overhauUng 
to  prepare  it  for  the  next  winter's  use.  This  work  is  done  early 
in  the  fall  at  the  time  road  building  begins.  Bridges  are  strength- 
ened where  necessary,  the  roadbed  built  up  on  slopes  where 
weaknesses  have  become  apparent,  sags  occasioned  by  the  last 


170  LOGGING 

winter's  haul  are  filled,  and  any  general  improvements  made  that 
the  previous  season's  work  have  shown  to  be  advisable,  such  as 
the  elimination  of  undesirable  curves  and  grades.  This  work 
costs  from  $25  to  $100  per  mile  of  road. 

Operation.  —  The  practice  followed  in  preparing  a  main  two- 
sled  road  for  hauling  varies  somewhat  on  different  operations. 
Preparation  often  begins  two  or  three  weeks  previous  to  hauling, 
when  a  crew  goes  over  the  road  lining  in  soft  places  and  cut- 
ting out  windfalls  which  may  have  dropped  across  the  road.  A 
forward  pair  of  two-sled  runners  is  then  loaded  with  two  small 
logs  whose  rear  ends  are  allowed  to  drag  on  the  road  where  the 
horses  travel.  Several  loads  of  this  character  are  hauled  to  the 
landing,  followed  by  heavier  loads  again  dragged  on  the  same 
sled.  When  the  road  is  thoroughly  packed,  a  few  light  two-sled 
loads  are  hauled  over  the  road  after  each  snowfall.  Just  previous 
to  the  commencement  of  the  main  haul  a  rutter  is  run  over  the 
road  followed  by  the  sprinkler  which  makes  an  iced  rut  in  which 
the  sled  runners  travel.  This  preparatory  work  costs  $10  or 
$12  per  mile. 

When  hauling  is  about  to  begin,  the  roads  past  the  skidways 
are  broken  out  by  a  snowplow  and  if  necessary  by  shoveling. 
Then  an  empty  or  lightly  loaded  sled  is  drawn  over  the  road  to 
break  a  track.  The  snow  on  the  skidways  is  shoveled  off  and 
the  empty  sleds  drawn  by  two  or  four  horses  are  ranged  along- 
side for  loading.  Logs  are  sometimes  frozen  so  solidly  that  they 
cannot  be  loosened  by  hand  and  a  small  charge  of  dynamite 
must  be  exploded  in  the  pile.  On  steep  mountain  roads  it  is 
customary  to  place  partial  loads  on  the  sleds  at  the  upper  skid- 
ways and  "top-out"  the  loads  from  skidways  on  the  lower 
levels.  Sleds  are  loaded  by  hand,  by  the  crosshaul  and  by 
power  loaders. 

Hand  loading  is  used  where  the  logs  are  not  large.  It  is  a 
common  method  in  the  spruce  forests  of  the  Northeast.  Two 
skids  are  placed  so  that  they  span  the  interval  between  the  crib- 
work  of  the  skidway  and  the  sled  bunks  and  the  logs  are  rolled 
over  the  skids  by  the  loaders.  As  the  load  is  built  up,  the  skids 
are  raised  and  placed  on  top  of  each  succeeding  tier  of  logs. 


SLEDS   AND    SLED-HAULING  171 

Large  logs  are  loaded  with  a  team  and  cross-haul  unless  the 
skid  ways  are  higher  than  the  sled  bunks. 

Horse  loaders  or  "jammers"  are  frequently  used  in  the  Lake 
States.  These  consist  of  a  derrick  and  swinging  boom  mounted 
on  a  heavy  sled,  equipped  with  hoisting  blocks  and  tackle.  The 
jammer  is  drawn  from  one  skidway  to  another  by  a  team,  and  is 
placed  directly  behind  the  sleds  to  be  loaded  with  the  boom  so 
placed  that  logs  may  be  gripped  on  the  skidway  with  tackle, 
elevated  and  transferred  to  the  sleds.  Power  for  hoisting  is 
furnished  by  the  team  which  transports  the  jammer. 

Power  loaders  are  occasionally  used  in  the  Lake  States. 
They  are  mounted  on  sleds  and  have  a  stiff  boom  and  a  hoisting 
engine  driven  either  by  steam  or  gasoline.  They  are  transported 
from  one  skidway  to  another  by  animals  and  are  used  in  a  manner 
similar  to  the  horse  jammer. 

Logs  are  bound  on  the  sleds  by  chains.  For  high  loads, 
operators  use  a  set  of  ten  chains:  Four  ^-inch  short  bunk  or 
corner  bind  chains  which  are  used  to  bind  the  two  outer  logs 
of  the  bottom  tier  to  the  rear  bunk  and  the  rocker.  Four 
f-inch  "deck  chains"  each  consisting  of  two  parts.  The  first 
part  is  24  feet  long  and  one  end  is  fastened  to  a  ring  on  one  side 
of  the  rocker  or  bunk.  The  other  section  is  about  2  feet  in 
length  and  is  attached  to  the  rocker  or  bunk  on  the  end  opposite 
the  long  chain.  It  has  a  ring  on  the  end  and  a  secondary  chain 
with  a  grab  hook  attached  also  fastened  to  it.  One  pair  of  deck 
chains  is  used  to  bind  the  load  after  the  second  tier  of  logs  has 
been  put  on,  and  the  other  pair  after  the  fourth  tier  has  been 
loaded.  Two  f-inch  wrapper  chains  each  about  40  feet  long  are 
passed  around  the  completed  load,  but  are  not  attached  to  the 
sled.  The  chains  have  a  ring  or  bunk  hook  on  one  end  and  a  grab 
hook  on  the  other. 

Where  large  loads  are  hauled,  a  "potter"  is  sometimes  used 
to  help  bind  the  logs  together.  This  is  a  round  stick  3  or  4 
inches  in  diameter  and  2^  or  3  feet  long,  around  the  center  of 
which  is  fitted  an  iron  clasp  to  which  is  fastened  a  short  piece 
of  chain  with  a  hook  on  the  free  end.  Where  two  pairs  of  deck 
chains  are  used,  eight  potters  may  be  employed,  four  on  each  side 


172  LOGGING 

of  the  load.  After  the  deck  chains  are  placed  on  the  first  two 
tiers,  the  hooks  on  the  potters  are  caught  in  links  on  each  deck 
chain.  The  potters  on  the  far  side  are  held  in  a  vertical  posi- 
tion by  a  log  rolled  against  them,  while  those  nearest  the  skid- 
way  may  be  turned  down  until  the  sled  is  loaded,  in  order  not 
to  offer  interference. 

On  well-maintained  roads  having  favorable  descending  grades, 
four  horses  can  haul  from  5000  to  8000  feet  per  load,  while  two 
horses  can  haul  from  2500  to  4000  feet.  On  unfavorable  grades 
the  capacity  of  four  horses  may  be  from  2000  to  3000  feet,  log 
scale,  and  for  two  horses  from  1250  to  1500  feet. 

The  number  of  daily  trips  made  by  teams  for  given  distances 
is  influenced  by  the  weight  and  condition  of  the  animals,  the 
character  of  the  road  and  the  time  required  to  load  and  unload 
the  sleds.  Horses  tire  on  long  hauls  with  heavy  loads,  conse- 
quently more  timber  can  be  hauled  with  lighter  loads  because 
of  the  greater  speed  possible.  Horses  cannot  travel  more  than 
24  miles  daily  for  long  periods,  and  this  should  be  cut  down  to 
20  miles  when  possible.  The  number  of  round-trips  for  a  given 
length  of  haul  is  approximately  as  follows : 

6-miIe  haul 2  round-trips 

5-mile  haul 2  round-trips 

4-mile  haul 2-3  round-trips 

3-mile  haul 3  round-trips 

2-mile  haul 4-5  round-trips 

i-mile  haul 6-7  round-trips 

Steam  Log  Haulers.  —  As  early  as  1885  the  attention  of  loggers 
was  directed  to  the  problem  of  introducing  some  form  of  mechani- 
cal traction  to  replace  horses  on  long  sled  hauls,  but  it  was  some 
years  before  a  satisfactory  machine  was  placed  on  the  market. 

In  1889,  Geo.  T.  Glover  placed  four  log  haulers  on  operations 
in  Michigan.  These  were  probably  the  first  machines  used  for 
this  purpose  and,  although  they  were  not  a  success,  they  were 
the  forerunners  of  the  more  recent  ones  that  have  proved  to  be 
of  great  value. 

The  first  successful  log  hauler  was  patented  by  O.  A.  Lombard 
of  Waterville,  Maine,  who  adopted  the  general  principles  of  the 


SLEDS   AND    SLED-HAULING 


173 


driving  gear  on  geared  locomotives,   substituting  for  driving 
wheels  a  special  form  of  heavy  traction  device. 

The  essential  features  of  the  hauler  are  a  locomotive-type 
boiler  mounted  on  a  heavy  reinforced  channel-iron  frame,  which 
also  supports  the  cab  and  coal  tender  at  the  rear.  The  machine 
is  supported  in  front  on  a  narrow  tread  sled,  which  is  so  con- 
structed that  it  may  be  run  either  forward  or  backward.  A  pilot, 
who  sits  on  the  front  of  the  machine,  steers  the  hauler  by  means 
of  this  sled. 


A  Luinburd  SLL-a.ni  Lo'j,  Hauler. 


The  weight  of  the  machine  rests  chiefly  on  two  special  traction 
devices  placed  under  the  rear  end  of  the  boiler.  Each  consists 
of  a  heavy  steel  runner,  hung  on  a  4|-inch  shaft  and  equipped  on 
each  end  with  a  heavy  box  in  which  runs  an  iron  shaft  carrying 
a  heavy  steel  sprocket  wheel.  Each  set  of  sprocket  wheels 
meshes  into  and  carries  an  endless  tread  chain  12  inches  wide 
and  14  feet  long,  which  is  armed  with  calks  and  furnishes  the 
tractive  surface.  The  weight  of  the  engine  is  distributed  over 
the  surface  of  the  tread  chain  by  two  tool  steel  roller  chains,  which 


174 


LOGGING 


run  in  a  tool  steel  channel  attached  to  the  underside  of  the  steel 
runner  inside  of  the  tread  chain.  A  bearing  surface  of  approxi- 
mately 4^  square  feet  is  given  to  each  tread  chain  which  is 
sufficient  for  tractive  purposes  and  does  not  tear  up  the  road. 

The  boiler  which  is  equipped  with  locomotive  boiler  attach- 
ments is  15  feet  long,  36  inches  in  diameter  and  is  built  for  a 
working  pressure  of  200  pounds.  The  water  tank  is  placed 
under  the  boiler  directly  in  front  of  the  fire  box  and  has  a  capa- 
city of  ten  barrels,  which  will  run  the  hauler  for  5  miles. 

The  engine  has  four  vertical  6^-inch  by  8-inch  cyHnders  which 
transmit  power  by  a  series  of  gears  to  the  rear  sprocket  wheel 
on  each  runner.  Two  cylinders  are  placed  on  each  side  of  the 
forward  part  of  the  boiler.  The  log  hauler  weighs  from  17  to  22 
tons  when  loaded  with  fuel  and  water.  The  average  cost  is 
$5000  each. 

Steam  log  haulers  are  used  extensively  in  the  Lake  States, 
in  the  Northeast  and  in  Canada. 

Some  advantages  possessed  by  the  machine  are  that  the 
annual  depreciation  and  repairs  are  less  than  the  depreciation 
on  an  equivalent  number  of  animals;  the  necessity  of  bringing 
in  large  quantities  of  feed  is  obviated;  and  the  machine  can  be 
operated  day  and  night  by  employing  two  crews.  Hauls  exceed- 
ing 4  miles  can  generally  be  made  cheaper  with  a  log  hauler 
than  with  animals. 

The  fuel  most  commonly  used  is  wood  because  of  its  accessi- 
bility. Under  average  conditions  a  cord  of  2-foot  fairly  dry  wood 
will  run  a  hauler  approximately  8  miles,  while  a  ton  of  soft  coal 
will  run  it  about  24  miles.  Watering  places  must  be  provided 
along  the  road  at  intervals  of  from  3  to  5  miles. 

The  operation  of  a  hauler  requires  a  crew  of  from  three  to 
five  men;  namely,  one  engineer,  one  fireman,  one  pilot  and  one 
or  two  trainmen  when  from  ten  to  twelve  sleds  are  hauled. 

The  average  speed  with  loaded  sleds  is  4^  miles  per  hour, 
and  with  a  train  of  empty  sleds  the  speed  is  about  6  miles  per 
hour. 

The  cost  of  road  construction  for  log  haulers  is  greater  than 
for  animals  because  stronger  bridges  must  be  built,  steep  down- 


SLEDS   AND    SLED-HAULING 


175 


grades  side-banked  and  timbered,  and  all  curves  strongly  side- 
skidded  to  prevent  the  sleighs  leaving  the  road.  Sharp  curves 
should  be  avoided  because  it  is  difficult  to  keep  a  train  of  sleds 
in  the  road. 

On  long,  level  hauls  it  is  customary  to  rut  and  ice  the  roads 
to  increase  the  hauHng  capacity.  This  may  be  done  daily  on 
the  last  return  trip  from  the  landing,  the  rutter  and  sprinkler 
being  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  train.  As  a  rule,  however,  the 
road  is  maintained  by  a  separate  crew. 


Fig.  43.  —  Type  of  Sled  used  with  a  Steam  Log  Hauler. 


Sleds  are  made  stronger  than  for  animal  haul  because  they  not 
only  bear  a  heavier  load  but  are  subject  to  severe  strain  in  stop- 
ping and  starting.  The  gauge  is  usually  about  8  feet  in  order 
that  the  hauler  may  travel  inside  of  the  ruts. 

Where  the  road  has  steep  ascending  or  descending  grades  three 
or  four  sleds  compose  a  "turn"  because  in  the  first  instance  the 
machine  cannot  pull  loads  of  much  greater  weight  and  in  the 
second,  sleds  have  a  tendency  to  ''jacknife"  and  run  out  of 
the  rut. 

In  mountain  regions,  steam  log  haulers  are  used  on  the  main 
road  only  because  the  cost  of  constructing  suitable  secondary 
roads  is  too  great.  Sleds  are  hauled  by  horses  to  a  central  point 
on  the  main  road  and  there  made  into  turns  for  the  log  hauler. 
In  a  flat  region  the  hauler  may  operate  direct  from  the  skidway 
to  the  landing,  because  of  cheap  road  construction. 

Rollways  at  landings  should  be  arranged  so  that  sleds  can  be 
run  along  the  side  of  them  and  all  be  unloaded  without  respot- 


176  LOGGING 

ting.  The  hauler  then  need  not  remain  during  unloading  but 
can  at  once  start  on  the  return  trip  to  the  skidways  with  the 
empties  from  the  preceding  turn.  This  method  of  operation 
necessitates  the  use  of  three  sets  of  sleds;  namely,  one  at  the 
skidways,  one  on  the  road  and  one  at  the  landing.  The  in- 
creased cost  of  equipment  is  more  than  offset  by  the  greater 
capacity  of  the  hauler  and  the  decreased  labor  cost  at  the 
landing. 

Haulers  in  the  Adirondacks  have  carried  fifteen  cords  of 
spruce  pulp  wood  over  roads  having  10  and  11  per  cent  grades. 
Distance  records  of  84  miles  in  twenty-four  hours  have  been 
reported.  The  heaviest  loads  have  been  hauled  in  the  Lake 
States  on  ice  roads.  A  single  log  hauler  in  Wisconsin  has  hauled 
fourteen  sled  loads  of  hardwood  in  one  train,  each  sled  bearing 
from  6000  to  7000  feet,  making  three  or  four  trips  daily  on  a 
round-trip  of  1 2  miles.  In  Minnesota,  trains  of  nine  sleds,  each 
bearing  12,000  feet  of  white  and  Norway  pine,  have  been  trans- 
ported by  one  hauler. 

The  average  cost  of  operating  a  hauler  of  this  character  in 
Ontario  was  $15  per  day  for  coal  and  oil,  and  $15  for  wages  and 
board  of  the  train  crew.  The  hauler  made  three  turns  daily  on 
a  road  between  7  and  8  miles  long  hauling  from  nine  to  twelve 
sleds  per  trip,  an  average  of  thirty  loads.  Each  sled  carried 
eighty  logs,  or  a  total  daily  haul  of  2400  logs.  The  company 
estimated  that  the  hauler  did  the  work  of  twenty  teams  at  a 
reduction  of  $25  daily  for  wages,  and  from  $10  to  $15  saving  in 
the  amount  that  would  have  been  expended  for  horse  feed.  A 
further  saving  was  effected  during  the  summer  months  since  idle 
horses  cost  from  $25  to  $40  each  to  feed  while  there  is  no  expense 
for  the  hauler.^ 

A  record^  of  one  machine  for  a  season's  haul  in  Stetson  Town, 
Franklin  County,  Maine,  from  January  11  to  March  6,  1907, 
running  day  and  night  shifts,  is  shown  in  the  following: 

1  See  Logging  by  Steam  in  Ontario  Forests.  Canada  Lumberman,  Toronto, 
Ontario,  Canada,  September,  191 1,  p.  77. 

2  From  the  Mechanical  Traction  of  Sleds,  by  Asa  S.  Williams.  Forestry  Quar- 
terly, Vol.  VI,  1908,  p.  361. 


SLEDS   AND   SLED-HAULING  177 

Length  of  haul 7.5  miles 

Total  miles  traveled 2850 

Actual  speed 4  to  6  miles  per  hour 

Sleds  hauled 551 

Largest  number  of  sleds  in  i  turn. .  .  5 

Total  sleds  used  daily 21 

Fuel  used 350  cords  of  2-foot  hardwood 

Elapsed  time 65  days 

Running  time 53  days,  19  hours,  45  minutes 

Lost  time 6  days,  4  hours,  15  minutes 

Total  log  scale 3,403,332  feet,  log  scale 

Scale  per  sled 6225  feet,  log  scale 

Scale  per  turn 18,052  feet,  log  scale 

Largest  train 37, 710  feet,  log  scale 

The  saving  by  the  use  of  the  hauler  was  marked,  since  sixty- 
two  horses  would  have  been  required  to  handle  the  same  amount 
of  timber. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

WHEELED  VEHICLES 

Wheeled  vehicles  may  be  used  where  snow  is  not  available  as 
a  bottom  on  which  to  move  logs.  They  are  employed  for  sum- 
mer logging  in  the  Lake  States,  and  for  year  round  logging  in 
the  South,  Southwest,  the  sugar  pine  region  of  California  and 
the  Pacific  Coast  region. 


TWO-^\^IEELED    VEHICLES 

Bummers.  —  A  low  truck  called  a  bummer  or  self-loading 
skidder  has  come  into  extensive  use  in  the  flat  and  rolling  hard- 
wood and  the  yellow  pine  forests 
of  the  South,  especially  in  Arkan- 
sas and  Louisiana.  A  similar  ve- 
hicle is  also  used  in  some  places  in 
the  Inland  Empire.  In  the  South, 
bummers  are  often  made  by  the 
camp  blacksmith  and  have  solid 
black  gum  wheels  with  14-inch 
faces  and  a  diameter  of  from  18  to 
21  inches.  Those  offered  by  manu- 
facturers of  logging  supplies  have 
a  skeleton  wheel  24  inches  in  di- 
ameter with  a  6-inch  tire.  The 
solid  wheel  is  preferred  by  many, 
because  it  gives  a  greater  bearing 
surface  on  soft  ground. 

Heavy    steel    axles    support    a 


Fig.  44.  —  The   Method  of   loading 
Logs  on  a  Bummer. 


in  length  and  slightly  concave  on 
its  upper  surface.      A  tongue    5I 
feet  long  is  attached  to  the  bunk  and  serves  both  as  a  loading 

178 


WHEELED   VEHICLES  1 79 

lever  and  as  a  point  of  attachment  for  the  draft  power.  Small 
logs  are  held  on  the  bunk  with  chains  and  large  logs  either  with 
tongs  attached  to  the  front  face  of  the  bunk  or  by  a  short  chain 
to  a  breastplate  on  the  tongue. 

Bummers  can  be  built  by  a  camp  blacksmith  for  from  $12  to 
$15  each,  and  can  be  purchased  from  manufacturers  for  $40  each. 

In  loading,  a  bummer  is  driven  up  to  a  log  and  backed  around 
against  it  near  the  end.  The  tongue  is  then  brought  to  a  per- 
pendicular position  which  permits  the  attachment  of  the  tongs 
3  or  4  feet  from  the  end  of  the  log  (Fig.  44) .  The  team  is  then 
hitched  to  a  chain  on  the  end  of  the  tongue  and  is  driven  forward 
until  the  tongue  has  been  brought  to  a  horizontal  position,  which 
brings  the  log  on  top  of  the  wheels.  The  trucks  are  turned  by 
the  horses  until  the  log  drops  on  the  bunk.  The  load  is  then 
ready  to  start  for  the  skidway  (Fig.  44) . 

Unloading  may  be  accomplished  by  a  reversal  of  the  process, 
or  by  disengaging  the  tong  points  by  a  blow  from  a  cant  hook  or 
maul  and  dragging  the  bummer  from  under  the  log. 

When  several  small  logs  are  handled  at  one  time,  tongs  are 
replaced  with  chains  and  loading  is  done  from  a  rough  skidway 
consisting  of  a  single  skid  stick  with  one  end  raised  high  enough 
from  the  ground  to  enable  the  logs  to  be  rolled  on  the  bunks 
with  cant  hooks. 

Bummers  of  this  character  may  be  used  to  advantage  only  in  a 
region  fairly  free  from  brush,  where  the  bottom  is  smooth  and  suf- 
ficiently hard  to  prevent  the  low  wheels  from  miring  and  where 
gentle  grades  to  the  skidway  can  be  secured.  They  are  seldom 
used  for  distances  exceeding  40  rods.  Bummers  are  less  service- 
able than  high  wheels  on  ascending  grades,  since  they  pull  harder. 

In  ten  hours  a  bummer  will  handle  from  8500  to  14,000  feet 
of  yellow  pine  for  a  distance  of  200  yards,  and  from  4000  to  6000 
feet  for  a  distance  of  450  yards. 

On  an  Alabama  operation  the  crews  operated  in  units  of  four- 
teen men  and  seven  bummers,  organized  as  follows* 
I  foreman  2  swampers 

1  loader  i  skidway  man 

2  "bunch"  teamsters  2  "bunch"  teams 
7  bummer  teamsters  7  bummer  teams 


l8o  LOGGING 

The  swampers  cut  the  limbs  from  the  logs  and  cleared  out  skid- 
ding trails  for  the  bunch  teams,  which  dragged  the  logs  to  central 
points  available  to  the  bummer  teams;  the  loader  assisted  the 
bummer  teamsters  in  loading,  and  a  man  was  stationed  at  a 
skidway  along  the  railroad  to  help  the  teamsters  unload  and 
"tail  in"  the  logs  to  the  forward  part  of  the  skidway. 

In  some  sections  of  Arkansas  a  teamster,  two  horses  and  a 
bummer  are  assigned  to  each  felhng  crew  and  handle  the  daily 
output  of  two  men,  skidding  for  a  maximum  distance  of  600  feet 
from  the  track.  Logs  containing  less  than  150  feet  are  snaked 
and  if  the  bottom  is  dry  all  logs  above  this  size  are  handled  with 
bummers.     One  swamper  serves  three  or  four  skidding  teams. 

Log  Carts.  —  In  all  t>pes  of  carts  the  logs  are  swung  beneath 
the  wheels  with  the  rear  ends  dragging  on  the  ground.  The 
height  of  wheels  ranges  from  5  to  10  feet  with  a  corresponding 
variation  in  gauge. 


Fig.  45.  —  The  Perry  Log  Cart  in  position  to  load.     This  cart  has  wheels 
either  4^  or  5I  feet  high. 

A  cart  used  in  the  Coastal  Plain  region  has  an  arched  axle  and 
wheels  4^  or  5I  feet  high.  The  hounds  of  the  cart  are  fastened 
on  either  side  of  the  tongue  by  a  heavy  bolt.  A  bunk  rests  on 
top  of  the  axle  and  carries  two  upright  guides  between  which  the 


WHEELED   VEHICLES  l8l 

tongue  fits.  The  latter  is  held  in  place  by  a  spring  latch.  When 
the  cart  is  to  be  loaded  it  is  driven  up  to  one  end  of  a  log,  then 
backed  until  the  axle  is  directly  over  that  part  of  the  log  to  which 
the  chains  or  grapples  are  to  be  attached.  The  latch  on  the 
guides  is  then  released,  the  team  is  backed  for  a  step  or  two  and 
the  hounds  are  forced  into  a  position  nearly  vertical,  which  turns 
the  bunk  through  a  quarter  circle  and  brings  it  near  enough  to  the 
ground  to  permit  the  grapples  or  chains  to  be  attached.  The 
elevation  of  the  log  is  accomphshed  by  driving  the  team  forward, 
which  brings  the  hounds  and  tongue  to  a  horizontal  position. 


Fig.  46.  —  The  Perry  Log  Cart  loaded. 

Wheels  of  this  character  may  be  used  in  a  region  where  it 
would  not  be  possible  to  snake,  or  to  use  bummers  without 
swamping  out  trails.  They  may  be  driven  readily  over  light 
standing  brush  or  in  down  timber  with  a  minimum  of  swamp- 
ing. It  is  not  customary  to  cut  trails  for  them.  The  capacity 
of  the  wheels  is  one  large,  or  from  three  to  four  small  logs.  Two 
horses  or  mules  are  employed  for  each  cart. 

Carts  with  larger  wheels  than  those  mentioned  are  in  ex- 
tensive use  in  the  South,  Southwest,  Lake  States,  sugar  pine 
region  of  California  and,  to  a  limited  extent,  both  in  the  Inland 
Empire  and  in  the  Pacific  Coast  region.  The  wheels  are  from  7 
to  12  feet  in  diameter  and  have  tires  from  5  to  10  inches  wide. 
When  one  or  two  logs  are  handled  they  are  suspended  with 
grapples,  and  when  several  constitute  a  load  chains  are  used. 


l82  LOGGING 

The  chief  distinction  between  the  several  patterns  of  carts  is 
in  the  mechanism  for  raising  the  logs  from  the  ground. 

One  type  in  the  southern  pine  forests  has  a  tongue  about  9 
feet  long.  The  chains  holding  the  grapples  are  attached  to  a 
hand-winch  with  a  horizontal  axis  which  is  mounted  directly  over 
the  axles.  The  load  is  raised  from  the  ground  by  revolving  the 
winch  with  hand  levers  and  it  is  kept  from  turning  backward  by 
a  ratchet.  When  the  carts  are  not  loaded  the  animals  are 
hitched  short  to  facihtate  hauling  and  guiding.  Where  large 
logs  are  being  handled  the  cart  is  driven  to  the  small  end  of 
the  log,  squared  around  over  it  and  then  backed  to  a  point  about 
midway  between  the  two  ends  so  that  when  the  log  is  elevated 
the  forward  end  will  be  clear  from  the  ground  and  the  rear  end 
dragging  lightly.  If  the  log  does  not  hang  properly  when  ele- 
vated it  is  again  lowered  and  the  grapples  attached  at  another 
point.  The  tongue  of  the  cart  is  fastened  to  the  log  by  means 
of  a  chain  which  is  passed  around  it  two  or  three  times,  then 
carried  forward  and  wrapped  around  the  front  end  of  the  log. 
The  draft  power  is  attached  to  the  free  end  of  the  chain,  or 
to  a  chain  on  the  end  of  the  tongue. 

Another  form  of  high  wheeled  log  cart  is  one  having  a  heavy 
wooden  bunk  and  a  tongue  from  12  to  16  feet  long.  A  chain  is 
attached  to  the  front  side  and  passes  over  the  top  of  the  bunk, 
ending  in  a  ring  to  which  the  grapple  hooks  are  fastened.  In 
operation  the  tongue  is  raised  to  a  position  slightly  past  the 
vertical,  being  prevented  from  tipping  backward  by  a  pole  10  or 
12  feet  long  which  is  fastened  on  the  upper  side  of  the  tongue, 
3  or  4  feet  in  front  of  the  bunk.  The  elevation  of  the  tongue 
lowers  the  grapples  to  the  ground  so  that  they  can  be  attached 
to  the  log.  A  team  then  pulls  the  tongue  to  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion, which  raises  the  front  end  of  the  log  clear  of  the  ground. 
The  tongue  is  then  chained  to  the  log,  the  horses  attached  to  the 
front  end  of  it  and  the  load  is  ready  to  move.  By  using  chains, 
several  logs  may  be  handled  at  one  time. 

Carts  of  this  character  are  used  for  handling  short  hardwood 
logs  in  the  Lake  States,  sugar  pine  in  California  and  yellow  pine 
in  the  South. 


WHEELED   VEHICLES 


183 


Another  type  known  as  the  "slip  tongue"  cart  has  a  tongue 
28  or  30  feet  long,  which  slides  between  the  hounds  of  the  cart. 
When  the  cart  is  in  motion  the  tongue  is  held  in  a  fixed  position 
by  a  catch  which  the  driver  may  release  by  a  trigger  when  ready 
to  load.  There  is  a  roller  directly  over  the  axle,  to  which  the 
grapples  are  attached  by  chains.  Fastened  to  this  roller  is  a 
short  lever  arm  which  is  connected  to  the  sliding  tongue  by 
means  of  a  chain.  The  cart  is  driven  over  a  log,  the  catch  hold- 
ing the  slip  tongue  is  loosened,  the  team  backed  up  and  the 


Fig.  47.  —  A  Slip  Tongue  Cart  in  a  Southern  Yellow  Pine  Forest.     Lever 
arm  is  elevated  so  that  the  grabs  can  be  removed  from  the  logs.     Texas. 


tongue  slipped  to  the  rear.  The  roller  is  so  weighted  that  it 
revolves  in  a  quarter  circle,  carrying  the  lever  arm  to  a  nearly 
vertical  position.  The  grapples  are  then  fastened  to  the  logs 
and  the  team  is  started.  The  tongue  slips  forward,  pulling  the 
lever  arm  to  a  horizontal  position,  and  raises  the  front  end  of 
the  log  from  the  ground.  When  the  short  lever  arm  reaches  the 
catch  on  the  tongue  it  is  automatically  locked.  The  team  then 
starts  for  the  skidway  with  the  load. 

High  wheels  of  this  character  are  especially  adapted  for  a  flat 
and  rolling  country  with  a  firm,  smooth  bottom  and  an  absence 


1 84  LOGGING 

of  heavy  underbrush.  They  are  usually  employed  on  hauls 
not  exceeding  one-half  mile  but  occasionally  are  used  for  dis- 
tances of  from  2  to  2I  miles.  In  the  pine  forests  of  the  extreme 
South  they  often  are  used  when  the  distance  does  not  exceed  100 
feet.  When  used  as  a  skidding  rig  in  the  southern  pine  forests 
they  seldom  require  any  road  construction  other  than  swamping 
out  a  trail  through  the  slash  along  which  the  teams  can  pass. 
The  forests  are  often  sufficiently  open  to  permit  the  passage  of 
the  carts  without  previous  preparation.  The  practice  prevails  in 
some  regions  of  felling  the  timber  in  strips,  beginning  at  the  back 
side  of  the  skidding  area  where  a  strip  from  100  to  200  feet  wide 
is  cut  parallel  to  the  railroad  and  then  skidded.  The  work  con- 
tinues in  this  manner  until  the  railroad  is  reached.  This  permits 
the  teamsters  to  haul  the  greater  part  of  the  time  through  stand- 
ing timber  free  from  brush,  which  greatly  facilitates  the  work. 
It  is  claimed  by  some  loggers  that  the  efficiency  of  a  crew  is  in- 
creased 25  per  cent  by  this  method. 

Roads  are  made  and  roughly  graded  in  the  hardwood  forests 
of  the  Lake  States  where  brush  is  abundant.  Since  short  logs 
only  are  handled  the  roads  need  not  be  straight  and  boulders  and 
stumps  can  be  passed  by  a  detour. 

In  the  fir  forests  of  the  Northwest  where  high-wheeled  log 
"sulkies"  are  sometimes  used,  a  well-graded  dirt  road  25  or  30 
feet  wide,  with  gentle  grades  and  easy  curves  is  required.  The 
cost  per  mile  is  about  $1500. 

From  two  to  six  animals  are  employed  to  haul  log  carts,  de- 
pending on  the  character  of  the  roadbed  and  the  size  and 
amount  of  timber  hauled.  Mules  are  preferred  in  the  South, 
and  horses  in  the  North  and  West. 

A  crew  in  the  southern  pine  forests  often  consists  of  three 
teamsters,  one  or  two  "bunch"  teamsters,  one  or  two  swampers 
and  one  skidway  man.  The  "bunch"  teams  yard  the  logs  along 
the  roads  at  places  convenient  to  the  log  carts. 

In  the  Lake  States,  two  pairs  of  wheels  and  two  bunch  teams 
are  used  by  a  crew.  The  brushy  nature  of  the  country  requires 
about  four  men  for  the  swamping  and  other  men  with  cant  hooks 
to  roll  the  bunched  logs  together  into  loads  for  each  log  cart. 


WHEELED   VEHICLES  1 85 

In  longleaf  pine  log  carts  drawn  by  two  mules  haul  from  200 
to  500  feet  of  long  logs  at  one  load.  When  four  mules  are  em- 
ployed, from  800  to  1000  feet  may  be  handled,  but  six  mules 
are  required  for  over  this  amount. 

In  the  Lake  States  the  load  for  four  horses  ranges  between 
1000  and  1200  feet,  log  scale,  with  a  maximum  of  1800  feet.  In 
the  sugar  pine  region  of  California,  from  six  to  seven  carts,  each 
drawn  by  four  horses  weighing  from  1500  to  1800  pounds  are 
used  in  one  camp  and  will  put  in  an  average  of  from  100,000  to 
125,000  feet  daily. 

High  wheeled  carts  range  in  price  from  $125  to  $175  each. 


Wagons  are  a  desirable  form  of  vehicle  for  stocking  small  saw- 
mill plants,  transporting  timber  to  the  railroad  on  large  opera- 
tions where  the  haul  exceeds  from  800  to  1000  feet,  and  for  log- 
ging isolated  tracts  on  which  there  is  not  sufficient  timber  to 
warrant  the  construction  of  a  logging  railroad. 

They  may  be  used  to  transport  logs  direct  from  the  stump  to 
the  mill  for  distances  of  from  2  to  4  miles,  although  they  are  most 
extensively  employed  to  haul  logs  from  the  stump  to  a  railroad, 
stream  or  chute.  The  average  length  of  haul  in  the  flat  and 
rolling  pine  lands  of  the  South  is  approximately  one-fourth  of  a 
mile. 

Mule  Carts.  —  In  the  Coastal  Plain  region,  a  type  of  4-wheeled 
wagon  called  the  "mule  cart"  is  used  on  the  uplands  for  hauling 
logs  to  the  railroad.  It  consists  of  two  pairs  of  trucks,  the  wheels 
of  the  forward  pair  being  4  feet,  and  the  rear  pair  6  feet,  in 
diameter.  The  forward  trucks  have  a  straight  axle  and  are 
equipped  with  a  tongue  of  the  usual  length  for  a  wagon,  while  the 
rear  pair  has  an  arched  axle  and  bunk  to  which  is  attached  a 
tongue  which  replaces  the  reach  in  an  ordinary  wagon.  When 
the  mule  cart  is  loaded  this  tongue  is  chained  down  to  a  ring  on 
the  bunk  of  the  forward  pair  of  wheels.  The  logs  are  swung 
under  the  rear  pair  of  wheels  and  only  the  forward  ends  of  the 
logs  are  raised  from  the  ground.  The  forward  pair  of  trucks 
may  be  detached  and  used  for  skidding  purposes,  in  which  case 


i86 


LOGGING 


the  log  is  suspended  under  the  axle  by  means  of  grabs,  or  tongs. 
Mule  carts  do  not  possess  any  special  advantages  over  a  wagon, 
but  are  preferred  because  laborers  are  familiar  with  their  use. 

The  usual  maximum  length  of  haul  is  500  yards,  but  it  is 
sometimes  extended  to  a  mile  or  more  in  scattered  timber. 

The  average  load  per  cart  varies  between  200  and  400  feet,  log 
scale,  with  a  daily  output  of  from  3500  to  5000  feet,  log  scale,  for 
a  one-fourth  mile  haul.  The  cost  of  hauling  and  loading  under 
these  conditions  will  range  between  $1.50  and  $2.25  per  thousand 
feet. 

Four-wheeled  Wagons.  —  These  are  strongly  constructed,  with 
32-inch  to  38-inch  front  wheels  and  34-inch  to  40-inch  rear  wheels 
of  wood  or  steel,  3-inch  to  6-inch  tires, ^  extension  reach  for 


Fig,  48.  —  A  Four-wheeled  Log  Wagon  at  the  Skidway.    Missouri. 


handling  logs  of  various  lengths,  heavy  bolsters  with  adjustable 
blocks,  stiff  tongues  for  oxen  and  drop  tongues  for  horses  and 
mules,  and  cast  or  steel  skeins,  or  steel  axles.     They  have  a  rated 

^  Some  loggers  prefer  3-inch  to  3|-inch  tires  for  two  animals,  and  4-inch  to  5-inch 
tires  for  four  animals. 


WHEELED    VEHICLES  187 

carrying  capacity  of  from  5000  to  15,000  pounds.  Spikes  are 
used  on  the  back  bolster  to  prevent  the  logs  from  sliding  for- 
ward when  hauling  in  a  hilly  region.  Steel  axles  are  not  as 
popular  as  skeins,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  repairing  them  in 
the  camp  blacksmith  shop. 

Log  wagon  wheels  are  sometimes  boxed  with  boards  to  keep 
mud  from  accumulating  on  the  spokes.  The  box  is  constructed 
of  rough  boards  nailed  to  the  rims  and  closely  fitted  around  the 
hub. 

From  two  to  five  mules  or  horses,  and  from  six  to  ten  oxen 
are  generally  used  for  draft  purposes,  although  heavy  wagons  are 
sometimes  drawn  by  traction  engines. 

Four-wheeled  wagons  range  in  weight  from  1300  to  2000  pounds 
and  with  cast  skeins  can  be  bought  for  from  $115  to  $175  each, 
including  whiffie trees,  evener  and  neck  yoke,  or  tongue  chains 
and  stay  chains.  The  bare  wagon  is  offered  by  some  firms  for 
from  $100  to  $110  each. 

In  some  parts  of  the  Inland  Empire  very  heavy  log  wagons 
are  employed  for  hauling  from  storage  yards  or  skidways  to  the 
logging  railroad. 

Wagons  used  on  an  operation  in  Montana  had  standard  height 
wheels  with  6-inch  tires,  bunks  6  feet  long  and  10  feet  apart, 
with  outer  ends  fitted  with  sway  bars  for  the  attachment  of 
binding  chains.  The  rear  trucks  were  equipped  with  heavy  hand 
brakes  operated  by  a  man  who  traveled  on  foot  behind  the  load. 
From  2500  to  4000  feet,  log  scale,  were  loaded  on  the  wagons  by 
gravity  from  elevated  skidways  at  the  terminal  of  a  log  slide. 

The  road  was  one  mile  long  and  mostly  downgrade,  with  some 
pitches  of  6  and  8  per  cent.  Four  horses  were  used  for  draft 
and  each  team  averaged  five  round- trips  per  day  between  the 
railroad  and  the  log  chute  and  handled  from  15,000  to  18,000 
feet,  log  scale. 

In  the  sugar  pine  region  of  Cahfornia  very  heavy  4-wheeled 
trucks  of  twelve  tons'  capacity  are  used  for  log  transportation 
when  a  traction  engine  is  employed  for  draft  power.  These 
wagons  have  54-inch  solid  or  skeleton  wheels,  20-inch  tires, 
a  short  coupling  tongue,  and  are  equipped  with  hand  brakes  and 


1 88  LOGGING 

binding  chains.  From  5000  to  7500,  feet  log  scale,  may  be  loaded 
on  one  wagon. 

Six-wheeled  Wagons.  —  Wagons  with  six  wheels  have  been 
placed  on  the  market  in  the  South  in  recent  years.  The  rear 
trucks,  which  carry  from  60  to  70  per  cent  of  the  load,  consist  of 
a  rigid  frame  bearing  two  axles  and  four  wheels  arranged  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  8-wheeled  type.  The  rear  truck  is  con- 
nected to  the  forward  one  by  the  usual  form  of  wagon  reach. 
They  are  designed  to  carry  heavier  loads  than  4-wheeled  wagons, 
and  to  eliminate  the  heavy  draft  and  difficulty  in  backing  and 
turning  in  a  short  compass  which  are  common  to  the  8-wheeled 
wagons. 

They  are  quoted  complete,  f.o.b.  cars  at  the  factory  at  from 
$118  to  $125  each. 

Eight-wheeled  Wagons. — Eight- wheeled  wagons  are  in  extensive 
use  in  the  southern  pine  forests  and  in  the  hardwood  forests  of 
the  Mississippi  bottoms. 

They  are  a  heavy  draft  vehicle,  more  difficult  to  turn  and  to 
back  than  a  4-wheeled  wagon  but  are  capable  of  carrying  a 
much  heavier  load  because  of  the  wide  tires  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  load  over  eight  Vv'heels.  They  can  be  used  on  a  dirt 
road  sooner  after  a  rain  than  can  4-wheeled  wagons,  and  often 
a  road  will  improve  under  8- wheel  traffic  where  it  would  deteri- 
orate under  that  of  four  wheels.  The  bunks  are  also  lower  than 
on  4-wheelers  and  the  wagon  can  be  loaded  more  readily. 

On  short  hauls  four  or  five  mules  are  frequently  used  with 
8-wheeled  wagons,  but  on  long  hauls  they  are  not  desirable  for 
this  type  of  wagon  because  of  its  heavy  draft,  oxen  being  the 
best,  especially  for  heavy  loads  and  on  unfavorable  bottom. 
From  three  to  five  yoke  constitute  a  team. 

Eight-wheeled  wagons  are  successfully  used  with  traction 
engine  draft,  three  or  four  wagons  each  holding  from  1000  to 
1500  feet,  log  scale,  constituting  a  train. 

The  distinctive  features  of  an  8-wheeled  wagon  are  the  for- 
ward and  rear  trucks  which  on  some  types  are  rigid,  consequently 
sharp  turns  cannot  be  made  without  dragging  some  or  all  of  the 
wheels.     Others  have  the  front  trucks  so  arranged  that  the  two 


WHEELED   VEHICLES 


189 


sets  of  wheels  can  turn  independently,  thus  reducing  the  resist- 
ance. All  wheels  are  of  the  same  diameter,  varying  in  different 
vehicles  from  32  to  36  inches  in  height. 

The  log  bunks,  with  adjustable  blocks,  are  supported  midway 
between  the  wheels  of  each  truck  and  project  slightly  above  the 
wheels.  A  short  reach  is  attached  to  the  forward  and  rear 
trucks  by  flexible  joints. 

Eight-wheelers  have  an  estimated  capacity,  on  good  roads, 
of  from  9000  to  20,000  pounds  weight.  They  weigh  from  1200 
to  1800  pounds. 


Fig.  49.  —  An  Eight-wlKJclcd  Lug  Wagon  wiih  a  Luad  of  Yellow  Pine 
Louisiana. 


The  price  of  one  type  of  8-wheeled  wagon  ranges  from  $125 
to  $140,  the  variation  covering  differences  in  size  of  axles  and 
tires. 

Wagon  Equipment.  —  The  equipment  used  with  log  wagons 
on  southern  pine  operations  is  as  follows : 


I  cant  hook. 

I  five-sixteenth-inch  chain,  20  feet  long,  the  ends  of  which  are  bolted  to  the 
bunks  of  the  forward  and  rear  trucks. 

1  one-half-inch  chain,  12  feet  long,  with  a  grab  hook  on  one  end  and  a  loading 
hook  on  the  other.  This  chain  and  the  one  above  form  the  cross-haul  used 
in  loading. 

2  hardwood  skids  about  9  feet  long  and  4  inches  in  diameter. 
I  hickory  binding  pole. 


190  LOGGING 

Roads.  —  On  short  hauls  the  only  preparation  made  for  roads 
is  to  cut  out  a  right-of-way  through  the  brush.  If  the  bottom 
becomes  heavy  for  travel  a  new  route  is  selected.  Where  a 
large  quantity  of  logs  must  pass  over  a  single  route,  a  good  dirt 
road  is  built  on  high  ground,  streams  bridged,  wet  places  cor- 
duroyed and  sufficient  repair  work  done  to  maintain  it  in  good 
condition. 

The  best  season  for  hauling  is  during  the  summer  months, 
when  the  ground  is  dry  and  hard,  for  logging  trucks  can  then 
handle  maximum  loads  with  the  least  amount  of  trouble.  In 
swampy  sections  and  on  bottom-land  logging  often  has  to  be  sus- 
pended during  the  rainy  period. 

Hauling.  —  A  common  practice  among  companies  who  own 
their  equipment  and  do  their  own  logging  is  to  work  several 
wagons  to  a  crew.  The  logs,  after  being  swamped,  are  skidded 
with  a  bunch  team  to  some  place  convenient  to  the  wagons. 
The  wagon  teamsters  then  are  concerned  only  with  loading  and 
hauling  the  logs.  On  small  operations  and  where  small  con- 
tractors may  be  operating,  each  wagon  teamster  does  his  own 
swamping,  bunching  and  loading.  The  former  method  is  con- 
sidered the  more  efficient. 

On  a  haul  of  one-fourth  mile,  one  bunch  team  can  skid  logs 
for  two  or  three  wagons,  and  for  greater  distances  it  can  serve 
more  teams  because  of  the  fewer  number  of  trips  made.  Each 
wagon  usually  carries  a  pair  of  skidding  tongs  and,  if  the  bunch 
team  gets  behind,  the  wagon  teamster  unhooks  his  leaders  or  the 
pole  team  and  brings  in  a  few  logs.  The  number  of  swampers 
required  depends  on  the  character  of  the  timber  and  the  under- 
brush. 

Wagons  are  loaded  by  the  teamsters,  who  use  a  cross-haul 

rig- 
On  short  hauls  large  logs  are  not  bound  to  the  wagon,  but  on 
long  hauls  or  where  the  load  consists  of  small  logs  it  is  customary 
to  pass  a  binding  chain  around  the  load  and  under  the  reach. 
This  chain  is  tightened  by  a  hickory  binding  pole.  The  loading 
chains  are  wrapped  loosely  around  the  logs,  the  loading  skids 
are  placed  on  the  reach,  and  the  wagon  is  ready  to  start  for  the 


WHEELED   VEHICLES 


191 


skidway.  Logs  are  unloaded  by  removing  the  binding  chains, 
placing  skids  in  position  and  rolling  the  logs  off  the  wagon  by 
means  of  cant  hooks. 

Hauling  should  be  in  charge  of  a  team  boss,  who  selects  and 
directs  the  preparation  of  skidways  and  logging  roads,  determines 
the  best  method  and  equipment  for  hauling  timber  from  par- 
ticular sections,  allots  given  crews  to  specified  work,  and  sees 
that  all  men  and  animals  are  employed  to  best  advantage. 
Skidways  should  be  selected  and  prepared  some  days  in  advance 
of  actual  use  so  that  the  hauling  teams  will  not  be  delayed  by  lack 
of  storage  space. 


Fig.  50. 


Loading  a  Log  Wagon  by  means  of  the  Cross-haul. 
Missouri. 


On  good  bottom  and  level  ground  two  horses  or  mules  should 
handle  from  400  to  600  feet  per  load  and  from  6000  to  10,000  feet 
daily ;  four  animals  should  handle  from  600  to  800  feet  per  load, 
and  from  8000  to  12,000  feet  daily.  Five  yoke  of  oxen  will 
handle  from  600  to  1000  feet  of  logs  per  trip,  depending  on  the 
kind  of  bottom  and  the  size  of  the  timber. 

The  average  number  of  trips  daily  for  two  horses  or  mules 
is  approximately  as  follows : 


192  LOGGING 

i  mile  and  less 12  to  15  trips 

i  to  I  mile 12  trips 

^o  I  mile 9  trips 

i  to  i|  miles 7  trips 

i^  to  if  miles 6  trips 

The  contract  prices^  for  skidding  and  hauling  yellow  pine  are 
approximately  as  follows: 


Distance. 

Cost  per  looo  feet.i 

50-400  feet 

.I0.50-.I0.75 

imile 

I . 00-    I . 50 

imile 

1.25-    2.00 

f  mile 

1.50-    2.50 

I  mile 

2-5°-  2-75 

Over  I  mile 

3.50-  5,00 

Based  on  a  single  team  and  driver  earning  $4  per  day. 


TRACTION   ENGINES    FOR    WAGON   HAUL 

Traction  engines  are  used  for  transporting  logs  from  the  woods 
to  the  mill  where  the  amount  of  timber  to  be  hauled  is  not  great 
enough  to  warrant  the  construction  of  a  railroad,  where  the 
grades  are  unfavorable  for  the  use  of  animals  and  where  timber 
of  large  size  and  great  weight  must  be  handled.  They  are  used 
to  a  limited  extent  in  the  southern  states  but  are  more  common 
in  the  Northwest  and  in  California. 

A  traction  engine  to  give  the  best  results  requires  a  good  stone 
road  but  it  works  well  on  solid  earth  bottom.  The  ordinary 
4-wheeled  type  is  not  successful  in  very  swampy  places,  on  very 
rough  roads  or  on  dirt  bottom  during  rainy  periods  because  the 
traction  wheels  soon  render  the  road  impassable. 

Four-wheeled.  —  This  traction  engine  has  a  locomotive-type 
boiler  carrying  about  165  pounds'  steam  pressure,  and  is  equipped 
to  burn  either  coal,  wood  or  oil.  The  boiler  and  other  parts  of 
the  engine  are  mainly  supported  on  two  traction  wheels  running 
on  axles  attached  on  opposite  sides  of  the  fire  box.     The  diameter 

^  For  logs  averaging  10  per  thousand  feet.  For  logs  running  from  15  to  20 
per  thousand  add  from  15  to  20  cents  per  thousand  to  above  prices.  For  oak  add 
50  cents  per  thousand. 


WHEELED   VEHICLES  1 93 

of  these  wheels  is  ordinarily  between  5  and  6  feet.  The  width  of 
tire  is  governed  by  the  character  of  bottom  over  which  the  engine 
is  to  travel.  On  ordinary  roads  from  20-inch  to  24-inch  tires  are 
satisfactory  even  for  the  largest  machines. 

The  forward  part  of  the  engine  is  supported  on  a  pair  of 
wheels  3^  or  4  feet  in  diameter  with  from  6-inch  to  lo-inch  tires. 
These  wheels  carry  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  total  weight, 
their  chief  function  being  to  aid  in  steering.  This  is  done  by 
means  of  a  hand  wheel  placed  at  the  rear  of  the  engine  in  close 
reach  of  the  engineer. 

The  engine  which  develops  from  20  to  30  horse-power  is  usually 
of  the  single  cylinder  type  with  a  heavy  flywheel. 

The  daily  fuel  requirements  range  between  i|  and  2|  cords 
of  hardwood,  or  between  i  and  i^  tons  of  coal.  About  2500 
gallons  of  water  are  needed  for  the  above  amount  of  fuel. 

On  a  Washington  operation  a  30-horse-power  traction  engine 
has  made  a  daily  round  trip  of  30  miles,  hauling  20,000  board 
feet  of  green  lumber  up  15  per  cent  grades,  and  down  30  per  cent 
grades.  This  is  probably  the  maximum  capacity  of  an  engine  of 
this  type. 

Holt  Three-wheeled.  —  This  type  has  been  developed  largely  for 
use  in  logging  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  has  a  return-tube  water- 
leg  horizontal  boiler  supported  on  an  I-beam  frame.  Almost 
the  entire  weight  of  the  machine  rests  on  the  rear  traction  wheels, 
each  7^  feet  in  diameter  with  a  24-inch  tire.  The  fore  part  of  the 
engine  is  supported  by  a  single  4-foot  wheel  used  for  steering. 
Provision  is  made  for  the  operation  of  the  steering  gear  both 
by  hand  and  by  power.  A  single  cylinder  ii-inch  by  12-inch 
balanced  valve  engine  is  placed  on  top  of  the  boiler,  and  at  165 
pounds'  steam  pressure  develops  60  horse-power.  Power  is 
transmitted  to  the  traction  wheels  by  chains,  and  either  wheel 
may  be  driven  independently  of  the  other.  This  is  especially 
advantageous  in  making  sharp  turns.  A  radius  of  25  feet  is 
practicable  in  operating  a  train  of  five  cars. 

Water  tanks  with  a  capacity  of  from  400  to  700  gallons  are 
carried  on  the  frame  directly  in  front  of  the  boiler.  The  average 
water  requirement  per  day  of  ten  hours  is  from  2500  to  3000 


194 


LOGGING 


gallons.     From  i^  to  3  cords  of  hardwood  fuel,  i  to  2^  tons  of 
steam  coal  or  from  200  to  300  gallons  of  fuel  oil  are  required. 

A  special  type  of  3-wheeled  wagon  is  often  employed  for  haul- 
ing logs  and  lumber  with  this  engine.  The  front  wheel  is  3^  feet 
in  diameter,  has  a  12-inch  tire  and  supports  about  one-fourth  of 
the  load.  The  remainder  of  the  weight  is  borne  on  two  rear 
wheels  each  4I  feet  high  and  with  16-inch  tires.  The  load  is 
borne  on  a  frame  built  to  carry  from  10  to  12  tons. 


'   Wk 

1 

1 

w  ?-  r 

.     t:C,;J 

-^'% 

m 

i^^&- 

^^^: 

m 

l.-,_. 

m 

s 

■pfH 

F-^,^    ■.   '  - 

^ 

^^^§^^ 

^p 

Fig. 


A  Holt  Three-wheeled  Traction  Engine  hauling  Sugar  Pine  Logs. 
Cahfornia. 


The  manufacturers  claim  that  a  60-horse-power  engine  will 
haul  a  load  of  from  40  to  60  tons  at  a  speed  of  from  2  to  3  miles 
per  hour,  ascending  grades  as  high  as  10  per  cent.  Thirty  thou- 
sand feet  of  green  lumber  loaded  on  three  trucks  have  been  hauled 
up  a  10  per  cent  grade,  and  15,000  feet  of  logs  have  been  hauled 
on  two  four-wheeled  wagons  over  a  rough  log  road  down  a 
17  per  cent  grade.  An  engine  hauling  empty  wagons  travels 
3  or  4  miles  per  hour. 


WHEELED    VEHICLES  1 95 

Caterpillar  Gasoline  Tractor}  —  This  type  represents  a  depar- 
ture from  the  ordinary  form  of  engine,  for  the  traction  wheels  are 
replaced  by  a  special  traction  device  similar  in  character  to  that 
used  on  a  steam  log  hauler. 

The  front  end  of  the  engine  is  carried  on  a  single  wheel  which 
also  furnishes  a  means  for  steering. 

The  engine  is  a  four-cylinder,  four-cycle,  water-cooled  type 
with  6f-inch  by  8-inch  cylinders  and  at  550  revolutions  per 
minute  develops  45  horse-power.  A  34-inch  flywheel  is  attached 
to  the  main  shaft  and  aids  in  maintaining  an  even  speed.  Power 
from  this  shaft  is  transferred  to  bevel  gears  on  the  rear  of  the 
machine,  which  in  turn  transmit  the  power  by  chains  to  the 
sprocket  wheels  in  the  traction  device.  A  forward  and  reverse 
motion  are  provided  and  two  speeds  may  be  secured  by  shifting 
the  gears.  The  high  speed  is  5  miles  per  hour,  and  the  low  and 
reverse  speeds  2^  miles. 

The  tractor  carries  a  fuel  tank  of  seventy  gallons,  and  a  water 
tank  of  fifty-six  gallons  capacity.  The  latter  is  sufficient  for 
four  or  five  days'  running.  Either  kerosene  or  gasoline  is  used 
for  fuel,  and  from  two  to  four  gallons  per  hour  are  required, 
depending  on  the  amount  of  labor  being  performed. 

The  weight  of  the  machine  fully  equipped  is  about  8  tons. 

This  type  of  tractor  is  adapted  to  soft,  sandy  roads  and  steep 
grades  where  the  conditions  are  unfavorable  for  the  use  of 
animals.  The  manufacturers  claim  that  they  may  be  operated 
to  excellent  advantage  on  any  road  except  one  on  which  many 
boulders  are  present.  Loads  of  18,000  feet  of  green  lumber  have 
been  hauled  over  roads  having  12  and  14  per  cent  grades. 

A  forty-five-horse-power  gasoline  tractor  costs  $3500. 

^  Manufactured  by  The  Holt  Caterpillar  Co.,  Peoria,  Illinois. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
POWER   SKIDDING 

The  first  patent  on  power  skidding  machinery  in  the  United 
States  was  granted  on  November  13,  1883,  to  Horace  Butters  of 
Ludington,  Michigan,  and  covered  an  overhead  cableway  de- 
signed to  get  logs  out  of  ''pot  holes"  and  swampy  places  in  the 
white  pine  forests.  Perceiving  the  feasibility  of  using  a  machine 
of  this  type  in  the  cypress  forests  of  North  Carolina,  the  inventor 
built  some  machines  which  were  mounted  on  scows  and  floated 
in  the  bayous  and  sloughs.  They  did  not  completely  solve  the 
loggers'  problems  since  they  were  limited  in  range  from  700  to 
800  feet  and  consequently  could  not  reach  a  large  part  of  the 
timber. 

In  1889,  William  Baptist  put  a  ground  system  in  operation 
in  a  Louisiana  swamp.  It  consisted  of  two  large  drums  and  an 
engine  and  boiler  mounted  on  a  scow,  from  which  an  endless 
cable  passed  out  into  the  forest  for  a  distance  of  one-half  mile. 
This  later  developed  into  the  modern  "slack-rope"  system  now 
used  on  pullboats. 

A  third  method  called  the  "snaking  system"  was  a  later 
development  in  the  pine  forests  of  the  South. 

THE    CABLEWAY    SYSTEM 

This  comprises  a  main  wire  cable,  from  i  inch  to  i|  inches  in 
diameter,  suspended  between  two  supports  known,  respectively, 
as  the  "head  spar"  tree  and  the  "tail"  tree.  These  are  usually 
located  from  600  to  750  feet  apart,  although  the  span  is  some- 
times as  great  as  1500  feet.  The  greatest  efficiency  cannot  be 
obtained  at  the  latter  distance,  because  lighter  loads  must  be 
handled. 

Head  spar  trees  are  located  along  the  logging  railroad  at 
intervals  of  approximately  1000  feet.    They  are  selected  by  the 

196 


POWER   SKIDDING 


197 


foreman  before  felling  operations  begin,  must  be  straight  and 
sound,  and  should  have  a  minimum  diameter  of  18  inches  at 
60  feet  above  ground.  In  order  to  make  the  spar  more  stable 
the  trees  are  topped  before  the  rigging  is  placed. 

In  recent  years  a  cableway  skidder  with  a  heavy  steel  spar 
mounted  on  a  skidder  car  has  been  placed  on  the  market.  This 
spar  replaces  the  head  spar  tree  required  by  the  earlier  type  and 
is  so  constructed  that  it  can  be  lowered  to  facilitate  moving  the 


Fig.  52.  —  A  Steel  Spar  Cableway  Skidder  showing  Loading  Boom  in  Front. 


skidder  from  one  set-up  to  another.  The  adjustment  of  the 
blocks  and  the  guying  of  the  steel  spar  require  only  from  one  to 
two  hours,  while  a  day  is  needed  to  take  down  the  tackle,  move 
the  skidder  and  adjust  the  blocks  to  a  new  head  spar.  The 
great  weight  of  the  machine  prevents  its  use  on  light  or  poorly 
constructed  track. 

Tail  trees,  which  are  also  chosen  before  felling  begins,  are 
located  from  150  to  250  feet  apart  and  should  be  at  least  18  inches 
in  diameter  at  30  feet  above  ground. 


198 


LOGGING 


One  end  of  the  main  cable  is  passed  around  the  tail  tree  at  a 
height  of  25  or  30  feet  and  is  then  carried  to  a  stump  or  tree  in 
the  rear  to  which  it  is  made  fast.  The  tail 
tree  is  braced  with  this  cable  and  also  with 
an  additional  guy  rope.  The  other  end  of 
the  main  cable  terminates  in  an  eye  near 
the  head  spar  tree  and  is  connected,  by 
means  of  a  clevis,  to  an  extension  cable 
which  passes  through  a  block  attached  to 
the  head  spar  tree.  The  extension  cable  is 
fastened  to  a  stump  in  the  rear  by  a  "block 
and  fall"  attachment,  by  which,  with  the 
aid  of  a  drum  on  the  engine,  the  main  cable 


TAIL  TRFE 


Fig.  53.  — a  Tail  Tree   .      . 

showing  the  Method  of  IS  tightened. 

attaching  the  Blocks      The  head  spar  tree  is  also  braced  by  cables 

to  the  Tree;  also  the   ^s  shown  in  Fig.  54. 

Arrangement    of    the        ^.  „  ...  ,     ,       ,  ■,  r       , 

Qyyg  Ihe  trolley  which  travels  back  and  forth 

on  the  main  cable  is  operated  by  an  out- 
haul  cable  and  a  skidding  line.  The  outhaul  cable  is  f-  or 
|-inch  in  diameter  and  passes  from  a  drum  on  the  engine, 
through  a  block  in  the  head  spar  tree,  through  the  trolley 
and  also  through  a  block  on  the  tail  tree,  after  which  it  is 
brought  back  and  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  trolley.     It  serves 


Held  Spar  Tree 
Loodiog  Cable     M,  l'"'"  C»l>'« 

/  Oolhaul  Rop, 

Lo.dbgC.,r  -".--'^    ■'  /        =.   -- 


By  permission  of  the  Lidgertvood  Mfg.  Co. 
Fig.  54.  —  A  Cableway  Skidder  showing  the  Arrangement  of  the  Lines 
for  Skidding  and  Loading. 


to  draw  the  trolley  out  along  the  main  cable.  The  f-  or 
|-inch  skidding  line  passes  from  a  drum  on  the  engine,  through 
a  block  on  the  head  spar  tree,  then  through  a  block  on  the 
trolley.     It  serve_  as  a  point  of  attachment  for  tongs  or  other 


POWER    SKIDDING 


199 


skidding  devices.  The  logs  are  dragged  up  to  the  main  cable 
by  this  line,  which  also  suspends  them  and  serves  to  return  the 
trolley  to  the  head  spar  tree. 

When  the  trolley  is  run  out  from  the  head  spar  tree,  the 
skidding  line  sags  between  the  two  points  of  support  and  its 
weight  pulls  the  tongs  against  the  trolley.     The  line  is  either 


Fig. 


-  Cutting  the  Top  from  a  Head  Spar  on  which  is  placed  the  Main  Cable 
Rigging  for  a  Cableway  Skidder.     Cypress  Forest,  Louisiana. 


pulled  down  and  dragged  by  hand  to  the  logs  to  be  skidded,  an 
operation  requiring  the  services  of  5  or  6  men  and  involving  a 
loss  of  time  for  the  entire  crew,  or  a  patent  slack  puller  is  used 
which  draws  the  slack  out  of  the  skidding  line.  A  third  f-inch 
cable  is  required  for  operating  the  slack  pulling  device. 

Power  for  operating  the  cableway  system  is  provided  by  an 
upright  boiler  and  a  pair  of  engines  mounted  on  a  steel  frame, 


200  LOGGING 

which  is  supported  on  two  sets  of  trucks,  each  of  which  is  pivoted. 
The  machine  is  moved  from  one  set-up  to  another  by  means  of 
a  locomotive.  On  arrival  at  the  location  where  it  is  to  be  used, 
the  frame  is  elevated  above  the  rails  by  hydrauHc  jacks,  the 
trucks  turned  in  a  quarter  circle,  and  a  short  span  of  track  placed 
under  each  truck.  The  machine  is  then  lowered  and  shunted 
ofif  to  one  side  of  the  railroad  by  the  side  of  the  head  spar  tree, 
where  it  is  blocked  up  and  remains  until  the  next  move  is  made. 
This  leaves  the  main  railroad  track  clear  for  the  operation  of 
logging  trains. 

The  steel  spar  machine  operates  from  the  main  track  and  may 
be  either  moved  about  under  its  own  power  or  hauled  on  a  car 
by  a  locomotive.  In  the  first  case  the  skidder  is  mounted  on  a 
steel  frame  supported  on  heavy  trucks  to  which  power  is  trans- 
mitted by  a  drive  chain.  In  the  second  case  the  skidder  is 
mounted  on  a  steel  frame  which  is  carried  on  a  set  of  specially 
designed  flat  cars.  During  operation  the  machine  is  elevated 
above  the  cars  by  means  of  hydraulic  jacks,  and  supported  at 
the  corners  by  blocks.  These  cars  are  then  pushed  to  the  rear 
of  the  machine  so  that  empty  log  cars  can  be  brought  under 
the  forward  part  of  the  skidder  for  loading. 

The  three  main  drums  on  the  skidder  are  arranged  in  a  row  in 
front  of  the  boiler.  The  forward  drum  handles  the  slack  pulling 
cable,  the  middle  one  the  outhaul  cable  and  the  rear  one  the 
skidding  line. 

In  operation  the  outhaul  and  skidding  drums  are  interlocked, 
and  when  the  outhaul  cable  is  wound  on  its  drum,  the  trolley  is 
drawn  out  towards  the  tail  tree,  carrying  with  it  the  skidding 
line  and  the  slack  pulling  line.  When  the  trolley  reaches  the 
point  at  which  logs  are  to  be  secured  the  drums  are  stopped  and 
the  interlocking  device  freed.  When  the  slack  pulling  line  is 
wound  on  its  drum  it  operates  the  slack  puller  which  runs  out 
the  slack  for  the  skidding  line.  The  latter  is  then  carried  to  a  log, 
or  logs,  which  are  attached  to  it  by  tongs  or  chokers.  Logs  can 
be  drawn  in  a  distance  of  from  60  to  75  feet  on  either  side  of  the 
main  cable  by  the  attachment  of  short  extensions  to  the  main 
skidding  line.     When  the  logs  have  been  pulled  in  near  the  main 


POWER   SKIDDING  20I 

cable  the  short  lines  are  detached  and  the  logs  coupled  directly 
by  tongs  or  chokers  to  the  skidding  Hne,  which  is  then  wound  in, 
and  the  log  elevated  wholly  or  partially  from  the  ground.  This 
is  accomplished  by  holding  the  outhaul  in  a  fixed  position  by  a 
friction  brake,  until  the  log  is  in  the  position  desired.  The 
skidding  and  outhaul  drums  are  then  interlocked  and  as  the 
skidding  line  is  hauled  in,  the  outhaul  rope  runs  out,  and  the  log 
is  held  suspended.  On  arrival  at  the  railroad  the  logs  are  dropped 
in  reach  of  a  loading  cable,  and  the  trolley  again  returned  to  the 
woods  for  another  load. 

Logging  rotates  around  the  head  spar  tree  and  from  i8  to  22 
tail  trees  are  usually  employed  for  each  set-up,  an  area  of  from 
25  to  40  acres  being  logged  from  one  spot. 

When  the  steel  spar  skidder  is  used  it  is  not  feasible  to  log  in 
a  complete  circle  because  of  the  difiEiculty  of  operating  lines  on 
the  rear  side  of  the  machine.  As  a  rule,  an  arc  of  from  275  to 
300  degrees  is  covered. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  fouling  of  the  cables  in  very  brushy 
regions  it  is  necessary  to  cut  runs  5  or  6  feet  wide,  extending  from 
the  head  spar  to  each  tail  tree.  Such  work  is  usually  done  a 
short  time  in  advance  of  skidding.  One  man  can  cut  the  runs 
when  the  brush  is  of  medium  size. 


By  permission  of  the  Lidgerwood  Mfg.  Co, 
Fig.  56.  —  Method  of  Shifting  the  Main  Cable  from  One  Run  to  Another. 


Two  main  cables  are  employed.  While  one  is  being  used,  the 
rigging  crew,  composed  of  three  men,  is  at  work  preparing  the 
new  tail  tree  and  placing  the  extra  main  cable  in  position  on 


202  LOGGING 

the  next  run.  When  the  timber  available  to  one  run  is  skidded,  the 
main  cable  is  dropped  to  the  ground  and  disconnected  from 
the  main  cable  extension ;  the  trolley  is  placed  on  the  new  cable, 
which  is  then  connected  up  to  the  cable  extension,  and  the  whole 
drawn  taut  for  operation.  It  requires  from  15  to  30  minutes  to 
make  this  change.  The  rigging  crew  then  proceeds  to  transfer 
the  extra  main  cable  to  the  next  run.  A  block  is  placed  on  the 
new  tail  tree  and  a  |-inch  cable  is  dragged  from  the  engine  out 
over  the  new  run,  either  by  hand  or  by  a  horse.  It  is  then 
passed  through  the  block  on  the  new  tail  tree,  and  finally  through 
a  block  on  the  tail  tree  just  abandoned.  The  end  of  the  small 
cable  is  attached  to  the  main  cable  and  by  winding  the  former  on 
a  drum  of  the  engine,  the  main  cable  is  dragged  around  into  the 
new  run,  having  reversed  ends.  It  is  then  made  ready  for  use  by 
attaching  it  to  the  tail  tree. 

Many  cableway  skidders  are  provided  with  extra  drums  placed 
on  the  forward  part  of  the  skidder  car,  which  are  used  for  loading 
the  logs  on  cars  and  for  spotting  empty  cars  under  the  loading 
boom.  These  drums  are  operated  by  an  independent  engine. 
The  loading  cable  is  f -  or  f -inch  in  diameter,  and  passes  from  the 
drum  up  through  a  block  on  the  head  spar  tree,  then  through  a 
block,  directly  over  the  log  car,  that  is  suspended  from  a  cable 
fastened  to  the  head  spar  and  to  a  stump  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  railroad  track.  The  loading  operation  is  independent  of 
skidding. 

The  cableway  system  is  especially  adapted  for  logging  in 
swampy  regions  where  the  bottom  is  too  soft  for  animals;  in  very 
brushy  sections;  on  steep  and  rocky  slopes;  in  taking  timber 
across  canyons  and  gorges,  or  in  bringing  it  up  out  of  canyons  to 
plateaus  above  or  lowering  it  into  valleys;  in  handling  dense 
stands  of  small  timber  or  heavy  stands  of  large  timber,  especially 
where  the  physical  conditions  render  ground  systems  difficult  and 
expensive.  It  is  operated  to  best  advantage  when  the  topog- 
raphy is  such  that  logging  railroads  can  be  laid  out  at  regular 
intervals,  but  it  is  also  employed  in  very  rough  regions  where  the 
railroad  must  be  placed  in  the  valley  or  at  the  head  of  the  slope. 

This  is  the  only  system  of  power  logging  that  is  not  very 


POWER   SKIDDING  203 

destructive  to  seedling  growth,  although  it  damages  standing 
timber. 

It  is  most  extensively  employed  in  the  swamp  forests  of  the 
southern  part  of  the  United  States.  It  is  also  used  in  the  rough 
parts  of  the  Appalachians;  a  few  machines  have  been  used  in 
the  spruce  forests  of  the  Northeast,  the  yellow  pine  region  of 
the  South,  and  they  are  coming  into  use  in  the  fir  forests  of  the 
Northwest. 

The  average  daily  capacity  of  a  cableway  skidder  in  cypress 
is  from  35,000  to  45,000  feet  log  scale. 

The  crew  for  operating  a  skidder  with  a  slack  pulling  device 
consists  of  13  or  14  men,  as  follows: 

I  skidder  leverman  i  head  rigger 

I  fireman  2  rigging  helpers 

I  tong  hooker  i  tong  unhooker 

I  or  2  helpers  i  run  cutter 

I  signal  man  i  loading  leverman 

I  top  loader  i  ground  loader 

If  the  machine  is  not  supplied  with  a  slack  puller  it  is  neces- 
sary to  provide  two  or  three  extra  men  to  assist  in  pulling  slack 
and  carrying  the  cable  to  the  logs. 

The  cost  of  the  fuel  and  labor  for  skidding  and  loading  is  from 
85  cents  to  $1  per  thousand  feet. 

A  steel  spar  cableway  skidder  operating  in  a  shortleaf  pine 
forest  in  Texas,- where  the  stand  averaged  from  3000  to  5000  feet 
per  acre,  logged  40,000  feet  daily  as  a  maximum.  The  average 
was  not  more  than  from  25,000  to  30,000  feet.  Owing  to  the 
low  stand  per  acre,  the  cost  ranged  from  90  cents  to  $1.25  per 
thousand  feet. 

The  crew  on  this  machine  was  as  follows: 

I  foreman  i  leverman 

I  loader  leverman  i  top  loader 

I  ground  loader  i  fireman 

I  tong  unhooker  i  tong  hooker 

I  rigging  slinger  2  helpers 

1  helper  i  run  cutter 

2  woodcutters  and  haulers      i  night  watchman 

One  horse  was  used  by  the  rigging  crew  for  hauling  out  cable 
and  one  team  was  employed  by  the  wood  haulers. 


204  LOGGING 

The  timber  on  this  operation  was  cut  from  24  to  32  feet  long 
and  was  felled  without  regard  to  the  skidding  direction.  The 
head  spar  and  tail  trees  averaged  about  700  feet  apart  with  a 
maximum  of  1,000  feet;  the  number  of  runs  per  set-up  ranged 
between  15  and  20,  and  the  area  logged  from  one  set-up  covered 
approximately  30  acres.  From  three  to  five  logs  were  brought  in 
at  one  time  and  were  loaded  on  skeleton  cars  by  a  long  swing- 
ing, end-control  loading  boom  as  shown  in  Fig.  52. 

During  the  last  few  years  the  cableway  skidder  has  been  in- 
troduced with  marked  success  on  the  Pacific  Coast  for  handling 
small  and  medium-sized  timber.^  The  machines  are  similar  in 
type  and  operation  to  those  used  in  the  c>^ress  region,  although 
they  are  heavier  and  have  a  high  speed  for  the  return  of  the 
cables.  They  operate  from  a  headspar  tree  and  log  an  area  of 
about  forty  acres  at  one  set-up  with  a  maximum  working  radius 
of  from  900  to  1000  feet.     The  crew  is  as  follows: 

I  skidding  leverman  i  loading  leverman 

I  fireman  i  woodcutter 

I  tong  hooker  4  riggers 

I  lielper  3  loaders 

I  signal  man  i  tong  unhooker 

The  logs  are  skidded  directly  to  a  logging  spur  where  they  are 
loaded  on  cars  by  an  auxiliary  device  similar  to  that  described 
on  page  202. 

The  average  daily  output  ranges  between  50,000  and  80,000 
feet,  for  logs  running  between  500  and  1000  feet  each.  The  daily 
wage  cost  per  crew  is  about  $48. 

One  manufacturer  states  that  the  cost  of  logs  on  the  car  is 
about  one-third  less  than  for  similar  timber  logged  with  yarding 
engines.  This  is  due  to  a  reduction  in  the  mileage  of  railroad 
spurs  required  and  to  the  elimination  of  sniping,  barking  and 
road  swamping. 

THE    SNAKING    SYSTEM 

This  is  a  ground  system  in  which  the  cables  are  taken  to  the 
logs  by  animals. 

The  essential  features  are  an  upright  boiler  with  two,  three 

1  The  Timberman,  Portland,  Oregon,  August,  191c,  p.  36. 


POWER   SKIDDING 


205 


or  four  independent  skidding  drums  mounted  either  on  a  heavy 
frame  and  trucks  or  on  a  frame  which  is  supported  at  the  corners 
on  legs  or  "spuds."  The  first  t^-pe  is  transported  under  its  own 
power  by  a  chain  drive,  and  the  latter  type  during  transit  rests 
on  a  flat  car  which  is  drawn  by  a  locomotive. 

The  machine  has  a  heavy  pulling  boom  at  one  or  both  ends  of 
the  frame,  from  the  peak  of  which  blocks  are  suspended  through 
which  the  skidding  lines  pass  out.  The  pulling  booms  are  guyed 
on  either  side  to  give  them  rigidity. 


Fig.  57.  ^  .\  Portable  Snaking  Machine  operating  in  a  Texas  Longleaf  Pine 
Forest. 

Portable  snaking  machines  are  not  equipped  with  a  loading 
device  but  are  suppHed  with  a  cable  by  means  of  which  logs 
may  be  piled  up  along  the  track  ready  for  a  special  loading 


When  the  snaking  machine  is  not  transported  on  its  own 
trucks,  it  is  equipped  with  a  loading  boom  and  the  logs  are 
loaded  on  cars  as  they  are  skidded.  The  machine  is  raised  off 
the  flat  car  by  means  of  hydraulic  jacks  and  then  the  corners  are 
blocked  up.  The  log  cars  are  run  under  the  skidder  when  they 
are  brought  to  the  woods  and  are  pulled  forward  under  the 
loading  boom  by  means  of  a  "spotting"  cable  as  required  for 
loading.  The  skidding  cables  are  single  lines  which  are  carried 
by  a  mule  or  horse  to  the  log  to  which  they  are  attached  by  a 


2o6  LOGGING 

pair  of  tongs  or  a  choker  and  then  drawn  in.  The  animal  is 
ridden  back  to  the  machine  and  after  the  cable  is  detached 
from  the  log,  returns  the  line  for  another  log.  Runs  or  trails 
are  not  cut. 

The  railroads  are  laid  out  in  parallel  lines  from  1200  to  1400 
feet  apart  and  the  timber  is  logged  halfway  back  from  each  side 
of  the  track.  The  road  is  often  placed  on  the  higher  ground 
because  a  better  drained  track  can  be  secured  and  the  timber  can 
be  pulled  up  hill  as  readily  as  down. 

A  common  practice  is  to  fell  the  timber  in  three  strips  begin- 
ning on  the  back  edge  of  the  area  and  cutting  a  section  from  200 
to  300  feet  wide.  This  is  skidded  before  the  timber  on  the  next 
strip  is  cut.  The  ground  is  thus  kept  free  from  debris  and  the 
timber  can  be  drawn  in  easier  than  where  there  is  slash  to  inter- 
fere. Trees  are  seldom  felled  with  reference  to  the  location  of 
the  railroad  track  although  skidding  of  long  logs  is  simplified 
if  they  are  thrown  away  from  the  direction  in  which  they  are  to 
be  pulled,  because  the  top  then  offers  the  least  interference. 
The  necessary  swamping  is  generally  done  by  the  sawyers  at  the 
time  the  timber  is  felled. 

When  sawyers  are  paid  by  the  thousand  feet  the  timber  is 
usually  scaled  at  the  stump. 

A  crew  of  seventeen  men  and  nine  animals,  either  horses  or 
mules,  is  usually  employed. 

I  foreman  2  levermen 

I  fireman  2-4  tong  unhookers 

4  tong  hookers  4  riders 

I  wood  chopper  i  wood  hauler 

I  night  watchman 

The  foreman  of  the  crew  has  general  supervision  of  the  opera- 
tion and  often  acts  as  the  leverman  on  the  loading  engine,  when 
the  skidder  is  equipped  with  one.  Each  leverman  operates 
two  drums  on  the  skidder.  The  fireman  performs  the  usual 
duties.  The  tong  unhookers  are  stationed  at  the  machine  and 
detach  the  tongs  or  chokers  from  the  logs  as  they  are  dragged  in, 
attach  the  cable  to  the  single-tree  for  hauling  back  to  the  next 
log;  they  also  act  as  signalmen,  transmitting  orders  from  the 


POWER   SKIDDING  207 

long  hookers  at  the  stump  to  the  levermen.  The  tong  hookers 
attach  the  tongs  or  chokers  to  the  logs,  swamp  an  occasional 
Ihnb  when  necessary,  and  control  the  speed  of  the  log  by  signals 
to  the  leverman.  The  riders,  usually  negro  boys,  ride  or  lead 
the  animals  from  the  machine  to  the  next  log.  The  animals 
drag  the  cable  to  the  desired  point  and  then  are  brought  back  to 
the  machine  to  repeat  the  process.  The  wood  choppers  and 
haulers  cut  and  supply  fuel  for  the  boiler.  The  night  watchman 
guards  the  machine  at  night,  cleans  up,  and  gets  up  steam  in 
the  morning  ready  for  the  crew.  The  top  loader  chooses  the 
logs  to  be  loaded  and,  standing  on  the  car,  directs  their  proper 
placement  on  the  load.  The  ground  loader  places  the  loading 
tongs  on  the  logs  to  be  loaded,  acting  under  the  orders  of  the  top 
loader. 

If  the  skidder  is  equipped  with  a  loader  boom  and  engine  the 
following  extra  men  are  required: 

I  loader  leverman,  usually  the  crew  foreman 
I  top  loader 
I  ground  loader 

This  makes  a  total  of  nineteen  men  for  a  full  crew.  Under 
favorable  conditions  the  total  cost  of  skidding  and  loading  is 
from  75  cents  to  $1  per  thousand. 

Eight  animals  are  used,  four  being  worked  from  one  to  two 
and  one-half  hours  and  then  allowed  to  rest  while  the  others 
are  in  use.  The  ninth  animal  is  used  to  haul  the  wood  cart 
which  transports  fuel  for  the  engine. 

The  daily  capacity  of  each  line  is  about  35,000  feet,  with  an 
average  of  125,000  feet  for  a  4-line  machine,  where  logs  up  to 
40  feet  in  length  are  handled. 

Daily  records  of  4-line  machines,  bringing  in  whole  trees,  have 
run  as  high  as  295,000  feet.  This  amount,  however,  cannot 
be  approximated  as  an  average  even  under  favorable  circum- 
stances. 


2o8  LOGGING 


THE    SLACK-ROPE    SYSTEM 

This  was  developed  largely  in  the  cypress  swamps  of  the 
South,  where  extensive  areas  of  forest  could  not  be  logged  with 
animals,  and  where  railroad  construction  was  not  practicable. 
It  is  also  very  extensively  employed  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  to 
a  limited  extent  in  some  other  regions. 

The  system  uses  a  heavy  pulling  cable,  and  a  lighter  one  for 
returning  the  main  cable  from  the  skidder  to  the  point  from 
which  the  logs  are  to  be  dragged. 

The  power  for  the  slack-rope  system  consists  of  an  upright 
engine  and  boiler,  and  two  large  drums  driven  by  a  pair  of 
powerful  engines. 

Pullboats.  —  In  the  cypress  forests  the  slack-rope  skidder  is 
mounted  on  a  large  scow,  and  the  machine  complete,  consisting 
of  an  upright  boiler  of  from  60  to  80  horse-power  with  two  engines 
operating  two  main  drums  and  usually  a  third  small  drum,  is 
called  a  pullboat.  The  large  drums  are  placed  tandem,  one 
having  a  capacity  of  from  3000  to  4000  feet  of  from  |-inch  to 
i|-inch  main  cable,  and  the  other  at  least  twice  as  much  f-inch 
messenger  cable.  An  equal  amount  of  |-inch  line  is  wound  on 
the  small  drum  and  is  used  to  pull  out  the  messenger  cable  when 
runs  are  changed.  Four  rings  are  spliced  at  50-foot  intervals 
to  the  main  cable  near  the  outer  end  and  to  these  the  chain  and 
cables  holding  the  logs  are  coupled. 

Pullboats  are  anchored  in  canals,  bayous  or  lakes  and  the 
roads  radiate  or  "fantail"  in  a  half  circle  for  a  distance  of  from 
3000  to  3500  feet,  although  some  of  the  larger  machines  can  be 
operated  for  4500  feet  (Fig.  58).  Distances  in  excess  of  3500 
feet  usually  are  not  regarded  as  desirable  because  breaks  in  the 
cable  are  more  or  less  frequent  and  on  very  long  hauls  the  loss 
of  time  in  locating  and  repairing  them  is  excessive. 

The  canals  are  dug  by  large  dredges  at  a  cost  of  from  $3000 
to  $5000  per  mile.  They  are  from  40  to  50  feet  wide,  carry 
about  6  feet  of  water  and  are  often  several  miles  in  length. 
Although  at  first  intended  solely  for  logging  purposes,  canals  in 
recent  years  have  been  built  with  the  idea  of  ultimately  using 


POWER    SKIDDING 


209 


them  for  drainage  purposes.  The  early  operators  had  difficulty 
because  they  started  to  use  the  canals  from  the  mill  end,  and  so 
much  debris  and  mud  were  drawn  into  the  water,  that  frequent 
dredging  was  necessary  to  keep  the  channel  open.  The  practice 
now  is  to  dig  the  canal  and  begin  logging  at  the  far  end,  working 
toward  the  mill.  Log  barriers  are  now  used,  which  prevent 
most  of  the  refuse  from  falling  into  the  canals. 


Fig.  58.  —  The  Arrangement  of  the  Roads  down  which  Logs  are  pulled  to  the 
PuUboat.  This  system  is  known  as  fantailing.  The  figure  is  adapted  from  an 
actual  operation  in  a  Louisiana  cj^press  swamp. 

Pullboats  operated  from  the  shores  of  lakes  or  from  wide 
bayous  are  moored  to  nests  of  piling  driven  off-shore,  and  the 
timber  usually  is  pulled  in  straight  lines. 

In  laying  out  a  pullboat  job  it  is  necessary  to  locate  and  cut 
out  main  and  secondary  roads  down  which  the  logs  are  dragged 
to  the  canal  or  bayou.  The  foreman  may  locate  the  main  and 
secondary  roads  on  a  map  in  the  office  before  going  to  the  field, 
and  determine  at  just  what  points  on  the  boundary  roads  will 
terminate,  and  the  angle  at  which  they  should  run  toward  the 
pullboat.  The  far  end  of  the  cable  passes  through  a  sheave 
block  fastened  to  a  tail  tree.  These  should  not  be  more  than  1 50 
feet  apart;  for  logs  cannot  readily  be  side-lined  for  more  than  75 
feet.     After  determining  on  the  map  the  approximate  location  of 


2IO  LOGGING 

the  tail  trees  the  foreman  starts  at  some  knowTi  point  along  the 
boundary,  paces  off  50  yards,  selects  the  nearest  suitable  tail 
tree,  and  blazes  it  so  that  it  will  not  be  cut  by  fallers.  He  thus 
proceeds  entirely  around  the  tract.  After  the  tail  trees  are 
spotted,  the  route  of  the  roads  is  blazed  out  from  the  boundary 
towards  the  pullboat.  On  the  completion  of  the  work  the  roads 
will  radiate  out  from  the  skidding  center  as  shown  in  Fig.  58. 


Fig.  59. 


■  The  Sheave  Block  attached  to  the  Tail  Tree, 
of  supporting  the  block. 


Note  the  method 


The  great  advantage  of  this  system  over  the  "every  road  a 
main  road"  method  is  that  it  greatly  reduces  the  mileage  of 
runs  and  is,  therefore,  much  cheaper.  The  roads  must  be  well 
cleared  out,  otherwise  the  logs  will  catch  on  stumps  and  other 
obstructions  and  cause  numerous  delays.  They  are  usually  cut 
out  by  contract  at  approximately  70  cents  per  100  feet  of  road, 
with  a  further  payment  of  25  cents  for  every  merchantable  tree 


POWER   SKIDDING  211 

felled  and  cut  into  logs.  One  man  will  cut  from  60  to  500  feet 
of  road  daily,  depending  on  the  number  of  trees  to  be  cut,  number 
of  stumps  to  be  removed,  and  the  amount  of  rubbish  on  the 
ground.  Workmen  regard  road  building  as  one  of  the  more 
profitable  forms  of  work  in  the  cypress  forest. 

After  the  roads  have  been  cut  and  the  timber  felled,  the  logs 
are  prepared  for  pulling  by  a  "sniping"  crew,  which  may  work 
by  the  day  or  by  contract.  The  duty  of  this  crew  is  to  "snipe" 
the  forward  ends  of  the  logs,  bore  two  opposite  2-inch  holes  about 
one  foot  from  the  forward  end  of  the  log,  and  swamp  out  a  trail 
so  that  the  log  can  be  dragged  to  the  main  road.  A  four-man 
crew  will  prepare  from  75  to  100  logs  daily  and  the  contract  price 
paid  is  about  8  cents  per  tree  or  log. 

A  pullboat  having  moved  to  a  skidding  site,  the  main  and 
messenger  cables  are  run  out.  A  sheave  block  is  adjusted  at  the 
far  end  of  the  road  and  two  |-inch  cables  are  carried  from  the 
pullboat  to  the  sheave  block;  one  end  of  the  cable  is  passed 
through  it  and  the  two  sections  are  then  joined  together.  At  the 
pullboat  one  end  of  the  f -inch  cable  is  attached  to  the  messenger 
cable  and  the  other  end  is  reeled  in  on  the  small  drum.  This 
drags  the  messenger  cable  out  over  the  road,  through  the  sheave 
block  and  back  to  the  skidder.  The  small  cable  is  then  detached 
and  the  end  of  the  main  cable  fastened  to  the  messenger.  The 
pullboat  is  now  ready  for  operation.  When  one  road  has  been 
pulled,  it  is  customary  to  change  only  the  main  cable,  leaving 
the  messenger  in  the  first  run  logged  until  the  distance  between 
the  sheave  blocks  becomes  several  hundred  feet.  It  then  does 
not  get  in  the  way  of  logs  coming  down  the  main  road,  is  less 
subject  to  damage,  and  less  time  is  required  in  changing  runs. 
In  changing  from  one  run  to  another,  the  sheave  block  is  left  at 
the  head  of  the  first  road  and  another  is  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  next  road  to  be  pulled.  The  f-inch  cable  is  carried  from  the 
pullboat  out  over  the  new  road,  through  the  sheave  block  and 
then  across  to  the  first  run  where  the  main  cable  is  detached  from 
the  messenger  cable,  and  the  latter  connected  to  the  f-inch  line. 
The  main  cable  is  drawn  to  the  machine  and,  by  reeling  in  the 
small  cable,  the  messenger  cable  is  pulled  over  into  the  new  run 


212  LOGGING 

and  along  it  to  the  pullboat.  The  messenger  and  main  cables 
are  again  coupled  together  and  the  equipment  is  ready  to  log  the 
new  run.  A  piece  of  telephone  wire  strung  along  the  outer  edge 
of  the  run  is  used  as  a  whistle  cord  and  signals  are  given  to 
the  engineer  by  pulling  on  the  wire.  The  sheave  blocks  are 
usually  placed  by  a  special  crew  before  the  change  is  made  and 
the  f-inch  cable  is  run  out  by  this  crew  unless  the  distance 
is  long,  when  the  entire  pullboat  crew  is  required.  Ten  or 
twelve  men  can  string  out  2600  feet  of  |-inch  cable  in  about 
three  hours. 

The  logs  are  prepared  for  skidding  by  the  insertion  of  plugs 
or  "puppies"  in  the  holes  previously  bored  by  the  sniping  crew. 
Cylindrical  plugs  2  inches  in  diameter  and  12  inches  long  are 
connected  in  pairs  by  two  sections  of  ^-inch  chain  24  inches  long 
fastened  to  a  6-inch  ring.  The  plugs  are  driven  into  the  log  and 
the  ring  on  the  plugs  is  fastened  by  a  short  chain  to  the  main 
cable.  The  log  is  now  ready  to  be  hauled  out  to  the  main  road. 
This  requires  some  maneuvering  if  there  are  stumps,  logs  or 
trees  in  the  line  of  the  log  being  hauled,  for  the  timber  must  be 
"side-lined"  around  them.  When  once  the  log  is  dragged  into 
the  main  run,  it  is  left  there  until  a  tow  of  four  logs  is  secured. 
Each  log  is  fastened  by  a  short  chain  or  cable  to  a  ring  on  the 
outer  end  of  the  main  cable.  The  boss  then  gives  the  order  to 
go  ahead,  which  the  whistle  boy  transmits  to  the  skidder  and 
the  logs  start  down  the  road. 

During  the  early  periods  of  modern  pullboating  a  device 
called  the  Baptist  cone  was  placed  over  the  ends  of  logs  to  enable 
them  to  slip  over  or  under  obstructions.  These  cones  were  made 
of  steel  but  were  too  heavy  to  handle,  when  made  strong  enough 
to  withstand  the  rough  treatment  and  they  were  abandoned, 
in  favor  of  sniping.  Tongs  are  not  regarded  with  favor  be- 
cause they  lose  their  grip  as  soon  as  the  draft  on  the  cable 
is  lessened.  When  a  tow  that  is  being  dragged  down  a  main 
road  is  stopped,  as  it  frequently  must  be,  the  tongs  drop  off  and 
a  man  must  be  sent  to  readjust  them.  For  this  reason,  plugs 
or  puppies  are  preferred. 

The  crew  of  a  pullboat  is  divided  into  two  sections,  one  of 


POWER   SKIDDING  213 

which  attaches  the  logs  to  the  main  cable  and  the  other  operates 
the  machinery  and  rafts  the  logs. 

The  woods'  crew  of  seven  men  consists  chiefly  of  negroes  as 
follows : 

I  foreman  3  side-line  men 

I  plug  setter  i  whistle  boy 

I  head  hooker 

The  plug  setter  adjusts  the  plugs  or  puppies.  The  side-line 
men  carry  the  skidding  lines  from  the  main  run  to  the  logs  and 
connect  them  with  the  puppies.  The  head  hooker's  duty  is  to 
attach  the  logs  to  the  main  cable  by  short  chains.  The  whistle 
boy  transmits  the  orders  of  the  boss  to  the  engineer  by  means  of 
a  code  of  whistle  blasts. 

The  crew  at  the  pullboat  consists  of  five  men,  as  follows: 

I  engineer  i  wood-passer 

I  fireman  i  deck  man 

I  rafter 

The  engineer  and  the  fireman  perform  the  usual  duties.  The 
deck  man  uncouples  the  logs  as  they  are  brought  up  to  the  pull- 
boat,  removes  the  plugs  and  chains,  and  poles  the  logs  around  to 
the  rafter  at  the  rear.  He  also  attaches  the  removed  chains  and 
plugs  to  the  main  cable  by  which  they  are  returned  to  the  woods' 
crew.  The  rafter  makes  the  logs  up  into  cigar-shaped  raft  units 
about  125  feet  long.  The  wood-passer  supplies  the  pullboat 
with  fuel  wood  which  has  been  previously  cut  and  piled  along 
the  banks  of  the  bayou.  A  flat  boat  is  used  for  this  purpose. 
About  three  cords  daily  are  required  for  a  single  boiler. 

An  average  day's  work  for  a  pullboat  crew  is  from  fifty  to 
seventy-five  logs;  the  output  is  often  less,  however,  because  of 
cable  breakage. 

Yarding  Engines.  —  In  the  Pacific  Coast  forests  the  slack-rope 
system  is  used  'on  dry  bottom.  Two  types  of  machines  are 
employed,  namely,  the  yarding  engine  and  the  road  engine. 
The  former  is  employed  for  skidding  logs  to  a  central  point  on  a 
railroad,  or  to  a  skid  or  pole  road  down  which  they  are  hauled  by 
the  road  engine.  Yarding  engines  are  built  in  various  sizes,  but 
a  common  one  of  the  more  powerful  type  has  a  60  by  120-inch 


214  LOGGING 

vertical  boiler  operated  at  from  165  to  200  pounds'  steam  pres- 
sure, and  a  pair  of  10  by  12-inch  or  12  by  12-inch  engines.  The 
yarder  is  equipped  with  two  drums,  one  about  60  inches  in  diam- 
eter with  a  capacity  of  approximately  1000  feet  of  from  |-inch 
to  i|-inch  steel  cable,  and  a  smaller  drum  from  36  to  40  inches 
in  diameter,  carrying  2000  or  more  feet  of  f-inch  steel  cable. 
The  engines,  boilers  and  drums  are  mounted  on  skids  about  3 
feet  in  diameter  and  from  35  to  40  feet  long.  The  larger  yarding 
engines  complete,  including  cables  and  other  equipment  delivered 
on  the  operation,  cost  from  $3500  to  $4000. 

The  method  of  operation  is  dependent  largely  on  the  topog- 
raphy of  the  region.  The  more  common  scheme  is  to  build  a 
landing  at  a  suitable  spot  along  the  railroad  and  to  install  the 
yarding  engine  at  one  end  of  it.  When  the  area  tributary  to  this 
location  is  logged,  the  yarder  is  shifted  to  the  opposite  end  of  the 
landing.  The  yarder  is  brought  to  the  site  on  a  flat  car  and 
unloaded  by  means  of  cables  and  blocks,  power  being  furnished 
by  the  yarder  itself.  In  some  cases,  a  road  engine  is  installed 
at  the  landing  from  each  end  of  which  a  skid  road  extends  into 
the  timber  for  from  3000  to  4000  feet.  Branch  roads  are  built 
from  the  main  road  and  at  the  junction  the  yarding  engines  are 
placed.  Another  method  is  to  build  spur  logging  roads  instead 
of  skid  roads  and  to  use  a  geared  locomotive  to  drag  the  logs  over 
the  ties  to  the  landing. 

After  the  swamper  has  bucked  up  windfalls  which  would  inter- 
fere with  dragging  in  the  logs,  and  the  yarding  engine  has  been 
placed  in  position  at  the  landing,  the  hauling  lines  are  placed. 
The  messenger  cable  is  carried  out  to  the  end  of  a  run,^  six  or 
eight  runs  ahead  of  the  one  in  which  yarding  is  to  begin;  it  is 
then  carried  to  the  end  of  the  first  run  that  is  to  be  logged  and 
brought  along  it  to  the  yarder  and  connected  by  means  of  a  clevis 
to  an  eye  on  the  main  cable.  Where  the  messenger  cable  turns 
an  angle  it  is  held  in  position  by  a  snatch  block  fastened  by  a 
short  piece  of  cable  to  trees  or  stumps.  These  blocks  are  made 
so  that  they  can  be  opened  and  the  line  removed  without  dis- 
placing the  block.     The  placing  of  the  messenger  cable  several 

1  Runs  are  usually  about  50  feet  apart. 


POWER    SKIDDING  21$ 

runs  distant  obviates  a  frequent  change  of  position  and  also  keeps 
it  out  of  the  way  of  the  logs  as  they  are  being  hauled  in. 

A  cable  or  chain,  called  a  "butt-line,"  ''whip"  or  "butt- 
chain,"  from  8  to  12  feet  long  with  an  eye-splice  and  ring  on  one 
end,  and  a  swivel  and  hook  on  the  other  is  also  fastened  to  the 
clevis  on  the  trip-Hne.  This  hook  on  the  butt-line  serves  as  a 
point  of  attachment  for  the  chokers,  grabs  or  dogs  which  are 
used  to  grip  the  logs. 

Where  there  are  heavy  pulls,  devices  called  "fair  leaders" 
which  are  built  of  several  patterns,  are  employed  to  line  the  cable 
evenly  on  the  drum  of  the  yarding  engines.  These  are  attached 
to  a  framework  placed  just  in  front  of  the  drums. 

A  crew  of  twenty-five  or  twenty-six  men  will  yard  daily  about 
6o,ooo  feet  directly  to  the  railroad.  The  crew  consists  of  the  fol- 
lowing men : 


I  side  boss 

I  knotter 

4  fallers 

I  signal  man 

5  buckers 

I  head  loader 

I  hook  tender 

I  second  loader 

2  choker  men 

I  spool  tender 

I  rigging  sHnger 

I  yarding  engineer 

I  chaser 

I  yarding  fireman 

I  swamper 

I  wood-buck 

I  sniper 

1  block  and  stake  maker 

A  side  boss  is  not  always  employed,  but  when  he  is  a  member 
of  the  crew  he  acts  as  foreman  of  the  felling  and  yarding  crews. 
The  hook  tender  is  the  boss  of  the  yarding  crew,  and  the  amount 
of  work  done  depends  largely  on  his  ability.  He  plans  the  work, 
shows  the  swamper  where  roads  are  to  be  cleared,  designates  the 
logs  that  are  to  be  skidded  and  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be 
taken,  and  directs  the  rigging  slingers  in  their  work.  The  rigging 
slinger  is  the  hook  tender's  assistant,  and  his  duty  is  to  place 
the  "lead"  and  other  blocks  at  the  points  directed  by  the  hook 
tender.  The  swamper  works  just  ahead  of  the  yarding  crew, 
cuts  up  rotten  windfalls  so  that  they  can  be  gotten  out  of  the 
way,  chops  out  the  larger  brush,  cuts  roots  and  improves  the 
runs  so  that  logs  can  be  brought  out  without  being  hung  up. 
The  choker  men  place  the  chokers  around  the  logs,  snipe  the 


2l6  LOGGING 

ends  of  the  logs  if  necessary  and  attach  the  chokers  to  the  butt- 
line.  The  chaser  follows  the  logs  to  the  landing  to  see  that  they 
are  not  hung  up  en  route,  and  to  signal  to  the  engineer  in  case 
there  is  need  for  stopping  the  engine.  The  knotter  cuts  limbs 
and  knots  from  the  logs  before  they  are  yarded.  The  head 
loader  is  boss  of  the  loading  crew  and  is  assisted  by  the  second 
loader  and  also  by  the  spool  tender  who  operates  the  loading 
drum  on  the  yarding  engine,  or  the  separate  engine  when  one  is 
provided  for  loading.  The  block  and  stake  maker  cuts  and 
shapes  blocks  to  fit  into  the  pockets  on  the  log  cars.  The  signal 
man  stands  near  the  hook  tender  and  by  means  of  signals,  usually 
given  by  pulling  on  a  wire  attached  to  the  whistle  of  the  yarder, 
transmits  the  orders  of  the  hook  tender  to  the  engineer.  The 
wood-buck  cuts  fuel  for  the  yarder  from  logs,  tops  or  waste 
material. 

The  first  work  of  the  yarding  crew,  when  starting  on  a  new 
road,  is  to  remove  the  material  which  is  too  large  for  the  swamper 
to  handle.  This  is  called  "chunking."  The  work  of  yarding 
logs  begins  when  the  road  is  cleared.  The  hook  tender  selects 
the  log  he  desires  and  the  choker  men  proceed  to  adjust  the 
chokers,  dogs  or  grabs  to  the  log.  A  choker  is  a  |-inch  or  i-inch 
steel  cable  noose  about  15  feet  long,  which  is  slipped  over  the 
forward  end  of  the  log.  The  free  end  has  an  eye-splice  which 
is  caught  into  the  hook  on  the  end  of  the  butt-line.  It  is  the 
most  common  form  of  attachment  now  used.  Dogs  are  large 
steel  hooks  from  10  to  14  inches  long,  fastened  together  by  a 
chain  or  cable  4  feet  or  5  feet  long.  These  are  driven  into  the 
log  and  attached  to  the  hook  on  the  butt-line.  They  are  most 
serviceable  in  small  timber,  but  do  not  hold  to  the  logs  well  on  a 
heavy  pull.  Grabs  are  used  in  pairs  and  are  connected  by  two 
links  of  a  stout  chain  to  a  common  ring.  They  are  driven  in 
notches  cut  on  the  sides  of  the  log,  and  are  so  constructed  that 
the  harder  the  pull  on  them,  the  greater  their  tenacity. 

When  the  logs  are  connected  to  the  main  cable  by  the  butt-line 
the  hook  tender  signals  the  engineer  to  haul  in  on  the  cable  and 
the  logs  start  down  the  road.  Additional  blocks  and  cables 
are  attached  to  the  butt-line,  in  case  it  is  necessary  to  side-line 


POWER   SKIDDING  217 

the  logs  around  stumps  or  other  obstructions,  or  to  pull  them 
backwards  until  they  are  clear.  As  the  logs  reach  a  snatch 
block  on  the  road,  the  engine  is  stopped,  the  block  opened,  and 
the  cable  removed.  The  block  is  then  placed  around  the  cable 
behind  the  point  at  which  the  logs  are  attached.  The  logs  then 
are  dragged  to  the  succeeding  blocks,  and  the  process  repeated. 
When  they  reach  the  main  road  they  are  disconnected  from  the 
chokers,  grabs,  or  dogs,  by  a  coupling-up  man  belonging  to  the 
road-engine  crew  and  the  main  cable  is  again  returned  for  more 
logs. 

A  day's  work  for  a  yarding  crew  varies  with  the  size  of  the 
timber  and  the  difficulties  of  logging,  but  averages  from  40,000 
to  60,000  feet. 

Coal  and  wood  have  been  the  common  fuel  for  donkeys  until 
recent  years.  Oil  burners  are  now  in  extensive  use  and  electric 
drive  is  rapidly  being  developed,  although  it  is  still  in  the  experi- 
mental stage.  The  advantage  of  fuel  oil  is  that  forest-fire  danger 
is  eliminated,  and  operators  claim  the  efficiency  of  the  yarding 
engines  is  increased  from  15  to  25  per  cent  with  a  considerable 
reduction  in  logging  expense.  Records  of  tests  with  fuel  oil 
reported  at  the  Fourth  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Pacific  Coast 
Logging  Congress^  showed  that  on  the  operations  of  one  company 
the  saving  in  the  use  of  oil  as  compared  with  wood  was  from 
9  to  17  cents  per  thousand  feet  due  to  increased  efficiency,  sav- 
ing of  good  timber  formerly  used  for  fuel,  and  a  reduction  in  the 
force  required  to  operate  the  yarder. 

The  cables  used  for  skidding  are  of  plow  steel,  and  their  life 
is  dependent  largely  on  the  care  they  receive.  When  kept 
properly  oiled  and  operated  under  average  conditions  a  main 
cable  will  handle  about  5,000,000  feet. 

A  modification  of  the  standard  yarding  engine  is  one  known 
as  the  Duplex  logging  engine.-  This  consists  of  four  drums, 
mounted  in  pairs  and  tandem  on  a  9-inch  shaft;  a  single  vertical 
72-inch  boiler  and  two  11-  by  13-inch  engines.  It  is  in  reality 
two  separate  yarding  engines  under  the  control  of  one  engineer. 

1  The  Timberman,  Portland,  Oregon,  August,  1912,  p.  40. 

2  See  The  Timberman,  July,  1911,  p.  55. 


2i8  LOGGING 

This  machine  has  been  developed  in  the  redwood  region,  and  is 
said  to  have  the  following  advantages: 

(i)  It  enables  the  simultaneous  operation  of  two  different 
gulches  by  one  machine  which  is  run  by  a  single  engineer  and  a 
fireman. 

(2)  On  long  hauls  the  time  can  be  reduced  by  yarding  logs 
for  a  portion  of  the  way  with  one  set  of  cables,  and  then  bringing 
in  the  logs  with  the  other  set.  The  long  distance  line  is  returned 
for  another  turn  of  logs  while  the  second  one  is  dragging  the  first 
turn  to  the  landing. 

(3)  One  cable  can  be  used  to  yard  logs  located  at  a  sharp 
angle  from  the  main  road.  The  logs  are  dropped  at  the  blocks 
on  the  main  road  and  picked  up  with  a  minimum  loss  of  time 
by  the  second  line. 

So  far  as  known  this  system  is  not  in  extensive  use. 

Road  Engines.  —  Road  engines  are  semi-permanent  in  char- 
acter and  are  not  subject  to  as  much  strain  in  movement  as 
yarding  engines.  They  may  be  mounted  on  skids  or  on  a  heavy 
frame  of  timbers,  and  are  operated  for  distances  not  exceeding 
i\  miles.  They  use  cables  of  a  size  similar  to  those  employed 
on  yarding  engines. 

Road  engines  may  be  used  singly,  in  which  case  they  are 
located  at  the  landing  along  a  railroad,  stream  or  at  the  mill;  or 
they  may  be  used  in  batteries  of  two  or  three.  The  rear  machine 
hauls  the  logs  up  to  the  tail  block  of  the  succeeding  road  engine, 
which  in  turn  hauls  them  to  the  next  one. 

It  is  seldom  economical  to  employ  more  than  two  or  three 
machines  in  a  battery  because  of  the  great  expense  for  cable 
and  labor  in  comparison  with  the  output.  Railroads  are  always 
built  up  to  the  first  road  engine,  if  possible,  because  of  the 
reduced  operating  charges. 

The  general  features  of  a  road  engine  are  similar  to  those  of 
a  yarding  engine  except  that  the  machinery  is  more  powerful 
and  capable  of  operating  for  longer  distances.  The  specifications 
of  one  of  the  larger  types  of  road  engines  are  a  72-  by  13  2-inch 
boiler;  13-  by  14-inch  cylinders;  165  or  180  pounds'  working 
pressure;  and  a  capacity  of  7500  feet  of  i|-inch  cable. 


POWER   SKIDDING  219 

The  main  cable  is  i  inch  or  i|  inches  in  diameter  with  a 
f-inch  messenger  Hne.  The  cable  is  operated  on  the  slack-rope 
system  with  the  road  engine  located  at  the  landing  and  a  heavy 
tail-sheave  at  a  point  a  short  distance  above  the  yarding  engine. 
The  messenger  line  which  is  placed  near  the  main  road  but 
outside  of  it  so  that  it  will  not  interfere  with  the  operation  of 
the  main  cable  is  hung  in  snatch  blocks  located  at  suitable  points. 
The  main  cable  follows  the  road  and  is  kept  in  place  by  blocks 
or  by  rollers  where  turns  are  made.  Several  logs  aggregating 
from  6000  to  11,000  feet  log  scale  are  fastened  one  behind  the 
other  by  grabs,  and  form  turns  which  are  attached  to  the  main 
cable  by  a  chain  or  short  piece  of  cable  which  is  coupled  to  the 
grabs  on  the  forward  log.  The  turns  are  made  up  by  a  grab 
setter.  A  chaser  follows  the  logs  to  the  landing,  often  riding  in  a 
rigging  sled  hollowed  out  of  a  log,  which  is  attached  to  the  rear 
log.  The  chaser  can  signal  to  the  road  engineer  at  any  point 
along  the  line  by  pulling  on  a  wire  stretched  along  the  road  which 
is  connected  to  a  bell  or  to  the  whistle  on  the  engine.  On  arrival 
at  the  landing  the  chaser  aids  in  placing  the  logs  on  the  landing, 
removes  the  grabs  from  the  logs  and  returns  with  the  grabs  in 
the  rigging  sled  to  the  yarding  engine. 

A  road  engine  requires  a  good  road,  because  the  route  is  used 
for  some  time,  and  when  the  haul  is  long  it  is  desirable  to  handle 
maximum  loads.  The  roads  are  constructed  in  two  different 
ways,  one  of  which  is  known  as  the  skid  road,^  and  the  other  as 
the  fore-and-aft  or  pole  road.^  Both  forms  may  be  used  on 
different  stretches  of  the  same  road,  because  skids  are  preferable 
for  level  or  ascending  grades,  and  pole  roads  for  rapidly  descend- 
ing ones.  The  skid  road  requires  a  right-of-way  from  12  to 
14  feet  wide,  which  is  swamped  out  carefully  and  graded  to  avoid 
abrupt  changes.  It  is  better  to  make  cuts  than  fills,  because  a 
more  sohd  foundation  is  secured.  Skids  from  10  to  14  feet  long 
and  from  15  to  24  inches  in  diameter  are  cut,  and  skidded  along 
the  right-of-way  by  a  yarding  engine  assigned  to  road  work. 
The  skids  are  laid  in  transverse  trenches  8  or  9  feet  apart  and 

1  See  page  149. 

2  See  page  233. 


220  LOGGING 

earth  is  tramped  around  them  to  make  a  solid  bed.  Where 
there  are  sharp  pitches  and  the  logs  are  apt  to  dig  into  the  ground 
the  skids  are  placed  closer  together.  Saddles  or  hollows  are  adzed 
out  in  the  center  in  which  the  turn  of  logs  is  dragged.  The  skids 
are  elevated  on  the  inner  side  of  a  curve  to  prevent  the  logs 
turning  too  sharply.  Some  prefer  to  lay  the  skids  flat  and  secure 
the  necessary  elevation  by  means  of  short  sheer  skids.  The 
advantage  of  this  method  is  that  a  change  in  pitch  at  the  turn 
can  be  more  readily  accomplished  than  when  the  main  skids 
must  be  changed. 

The  road  should  be  as  straight  as  possible  because  curves 
increase  friction,  reduce  the  hauling  ability  of  the  engine  and 
also  cause  greater  wear  on  the  cable.  Where  there  are  turns 
in  the  road,  either  rollers  are  placed  on  stumps  or  posts,  or 
fenders  are  put  alongside  the  road  to  prevent  wear  on  the  cable. 
Rollers  may  also  be  employed  on  top  of  ridges  to  prevent  wear 
from  downward  pressure,  and  suspended  rollers  may  be  used  to 
hold  the  cable  down  at  the  foot  of  slopes. 

On  low  ground  skids  are  laid  on  stringers  or  cobwork  into  which 
they  are  firmly  notched  and  the  skids  are  also  braced  by  short 
pieces  of  timber.  Hemlock  is  frequently  used  for  skid  timbers 
because  of  the  low  value  of  the  stumpage.  About  80,000  feet 
of  timber,  exclusive  of  bridges,  is  required  per  mile  of  skid  road 
and  the  cost  for  labor  ranges  from  $1000  to  $1500  per  mile. 

Hauling  by  Locomotive.  —  On  some  operations  the  road  engine 
is  replaced  by  a  geared  locomotive  and  the  logs  are  dragged 
between  the  rails  from  the  yarding  engine  to  the  landing.  As  a 
rule  the  logs  are  dragged  directly  over  the  ties,  but  on  a  road  of 
some  permanency  planking  is  nailed  on  the  ties  to  protect  them, 

A  plan  sometimes  followed  is  to  have  a  spur  track  from  one- 
half  to  a  mile  long  running  out  from  each  end  of  the  landing,  with 
a  donkey  working  at  some  point  on  each  spur.  The  engine  goes 
out  one  spur  and  with  a  short  cable  couples  to  a  turn  of  logs, 
made  up  in  advance,  and  drags  them  down  to  the  landing.  It 
then  goes  out  the  other  spur  and  brings  in  a  turn  from  it,  alter- 
nating in  this  manner  throughout  the  day.  A  water  tank  with 
a  i|-inch  escape  pipe  is  sometimes  used  to  wet  the  track  to 


POWER   SKIDDING  221 

facilitate  the  passage  of  the  logs.  On  a  i-mile  haul  one  engine 
can  handle  daily  the  output  from  two  yarding  engines,  or  from 
90,000  to  100,000  feet. 

Dudleys.  —  On  grades  too  steep  for  locomotives  a  special  type 
of  locomotive  known  as  a  "Dudley"  or  "Dudler"  (page  301)  is 
often  used,  either  to  drag  the  logs  over  the  ties  or  to  haul  log 
cars  up  or  down  steep  grades. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE  TO   CHAPTER  XIV 

Berry,  E.  J. :  Advantages  Accruing  to  the  Adoption  of  Electricity  in  Logging. 
The  Timberman,  Portland,  Oregon,  August,  1912,  pp.  32-33. 

Cole,  C.  O.:  Difficulties  Confronting  Electric  Log  Haulage.  The  Timberman, 
August,  1912,  pp.  36-37. 

HiNE,  Thomas  W.:  Utility  of  the  Duplex  Logging  Engine  and  the  Duplex 
System  of  Yarding.     The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  36-37. 

Kalb,  Henry  A.:  Utilization  of  Compressed  Air  for  Snubbing  Logs.  The 
Timberman,  August,  191 2,  p.  53. 

Mereen,  J.  D.:  Substitution  of  Electricity  for  Steam  in  Modern  Logging 
Operations.     The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  pp.  29-30. 

Thompson,  Jas.  R.:  Use  of  Electricity  on  Logging  Operations.  The  Timber- 
man, August,  1910,  p.  64L. 

Williams,  Asa  S.:    Logging  by  Steam.     Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VI,  No.  i, 

PP-  ^-iz- 


CHAPTER   XV 

AERIAL   TRAMWAYS 

Aerial  tramways  are  used  for  carrying  logs  and  other  forest 
products  up  or  down  steep  slopes,  where  other  forms  of  trans- 
port are  not  feasible. 

The  most  common  type  used  in  the  United  States  has  a  sta- 
tionary main  cable  which  is  stretched  between  the  terminals  of 
the  tramway  and  may  consist  of  a  single  span  or  be  supported  at 
frequent  intervals  on  trestles.  The  trolleys  carrying  the  loads 
run  on  this  cable. 

On  gravity  trams  the  route  need  not  run  in  a  direct  line 
provided  there  are  stations  at  each  sharp  angle  where  trolleys 
can  be  switched  from  one  cable  to  another.  Where  power 
is  used  to  move  the  loads  the  line  must  be  straight,  or  else 
separate  power  must  be  provided  for  each  straight  section 
of  cable.  Vertical  curves  are  permissible  when  sufficient  mo- 
mentum or  power  is  available  for  carrying  the  loads  over 
depressions.  The  average  grade  for  gravity  tramways  is  from 
25  to  30  degrees. 

A  single-wire  tramway  constructed  in  Tennessee  to  bring  logs 
from  a  plateau  to  a  railroad  in  the  valley  had  a  |-inch  main 
cable  with  a  distance  between  terminals  of  3700  feet.  The 
grades  conformed  to  the  general  slope  of  the  land.  The  upper 
end  of  the  cable  was  fastened  to  a  tree  on  the  edge  of  the  plateau 
and  ran  in  a  straight  line  to  a  railroad  located  at  the  lower  ter- 
minal in  the  valley.  The  cable  was  supported  at  intervals  of 
from  150  to  250  feet  on  brackets  of  varying  lengths  which  were 
fastened  to  trees.  The  cable  rested,  without  fastening,  in  a  slot 
in  a  casting  bolted  onto  the  end  of  the  brackets,  except  in  de- 
pressions where  one  end  of  a  piece  of  strap  iron  was  riveted  to 
the  outer  side  of  the  casting  and  the  other  end  passed  over  the 
cable  and  was  nailed  to  the  bracket. 


AERIAL   TRAMWAYS  223 

A  log  was  carried  by  a  pair  of  trolleys,  each  having  two  sheave 
pulleys  which  ran  on  the  upper  side  of  the  cable.  Two  short 
chains  each  having  a  ring  on  one  end  and  a  "grab"  on  the  other 
were  used  for  attaching  the  logs  to  the  trolleys. 

Five  sets  of  trolleys  were  joined  together  by  a  |-inch  cable, 
which  was  wound  around  a  drum  equipped  with  a  friction  brake. 
This  drum  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  tramway  and  served 
both  to  control  the  speed  of  the  descending  load  and  to  return  the 
empty  trolleys  to  the  head  of  the  tramway.  Power  for  the 
latter  purpose  was  supphed  by  a  15-horse-power  gasoline  engine. 

The  logs  were  loaded  on  the  tramway  from  a  set  of  balanced 
skids  which  were  placed  so  that  one  end  was  directly  under  the 
main  cable.  Horses  brought  the  logs  to  the  base  of  the  skids 
on  which  they  were  rolled.  The  grabs  were  then  driven  and 
the  skids  elevated  until  the  rings  on  the  grabs  could  be  fastened 
in  the  hook  on  the  trolleys. 

The  maximum  capacity  of  the  tramway  was  6000  feet  log 
scale  per  turn,  and  approximately  thirty  minutes  were  consumed 
in  making  one  round-trip. 

A  similar  tramway  has  been  used  in  the  Northwest  for  getting 
logs  upon  plateaus  from  canyons.  The  cable  is  suspended 
between  two  points  and  the  loaded  trolleys  are  hauled  to  the  top 
by  a  steam  hoisting  engine. 

A  special  adaptation  of  a  single-wire  tramway^  has  been  used 
on  an  operation  in  the  Northwest  for  lowering  logs  on  grades 
up  to  60  degrees.  The  main  cable  was  i|  inches  in  diameter 
and  1500  feet  long.  It  was  attached  at  the  head  of  the  tramway 
to  a  large  tree  at  a  height  of  75  feet.  The  tree  was  braced 
securely  on  three  sides  with  guy  wires.  A  16-inch  sheave  block 
was  spHced  to  the  lower  end  of  the  main  cable  and  through  this 
block  a  one-inch  cable  150  feet  long  was  passed.  One  end  of  the 
latter  was  attached  to  a  stump  and  the  other  to  the  drum  of  a 
yarding  engine,  both  stump  and  yarding  engine  being  in  front  of 
and  equidistant  from  the  sheave  block.  The  main  cable  could 
be  hfted  several  feet  above  ground  by  tightening  the  secondary 
cable  with  a  few  turns  on  the  drum.     The  logs  were  attached  by 

^  See  The  Timberman,  Portland,  Oregon,  August,  1909,  p.  24. 


224 


LOGGING 


chokers  to  a  traveling  block  that  ran  on  the  main  cable.  The 
load  descended  by  gravity,  its  speed  being  controlled  by  a  f -inch 
trip  line  which  was  wound  on  a  drum  on  the  engine  and  then  ran 
up  the  slope  to  the  head  of  the  tramway  where  it  passed  through 
a  pulley  fastened  to  a  tree.  The  line  was  then  attached  to  the 
rear  of  the  traveling  block.  The  trip  line  was  held  in  position 
by  several  blocks  placed  at  suitable  intervals  on  the  slope.  This 
line  also  served  to  return  the  block  to  the  head  of  the  tramway. 
In  case  of  a  break  in  the  machinery  or  of  the  load  becoming 
unmanageable  the  main  cable  could  be  dropped  to  the  ground 
and  the  load  stopped. 


Adapted  from  The  Timberman. 
Fig.  6o.  —  A  Single-wire  Tramway  used  in  the  Pacific  Coast  Forests.     The  details 
of  the  trolley  and  the  method  of  attaching  logs  to  it  are  shown  in  the  enlarged 
cut. 


A  system  of  this  character  may  be  used  for  distances  of  3000 
feet  when  there  are  no  pronounced  elevations  between  the  two 
ends  of  the  tram. 

Logs  containing  from  5000  to  6000  feet,  log  scale,  have  been  suc- 
cessfully handled.  The  hourly  capacity  of  this  tramway  was 
12,000  feet,  log  scale,  when  the  logs  averaged  from  300  to  500 
feet,  log  scale.     Three  men  were  required  to  operate  the  tram. 

A  single-wire  gravity  tramway  used  in  the  West  is  described 
in  The  Timberman,  April,  191 2.  A  i|-inch  main  cable  2100 
feet  long  is  suspended  between  a  tree  on  the  upper  slope  and  one 


AERIAL   TRAMWAYS 


225 


at  the  base  of  the  grade,  as  shown  in  Fig.  61.  Automatic  trips 
are  placed  on  the  main  cable  at  the  loading  and  unloading  points. 
The  snubbing  hne  which  passes  through  a  2-sheave  trolley  has  a 
ball  near  the  free  end  which  engages  a  catch  in  the  trolley  and 
serves  to  hold  the  load  in  position,  and  to  trip  it  at  the  lower  end. 
Power  for  returning  the  trolley  to  the  head  of  the  tram  is  fur- 
nished by  a  drum  on  a  yarding  engine  at  the  head  of  the  slope. 
A  cable  is  fastened  near  the  ends  of  a  log  that  is  to  be  transported. 
A  hook  on  the  end  of  the  snubbing  hne  is  then  caught  in  a  ring 
midway  between  the  ends  of  the  cable  and  the  log  is  hoisted  into 
the  air.     When  the  ball  on  the  snubbing  line  strikes  the  catch 


•    Adapted  from  The  Timbermaii. 

Fig.  61.  —  A  Single-cable  Aerial  Tramway  in  use  in  the  Pacific  Coast 
Forests. 


in  the  trolley,  the  latter  is  freed  from  the  stop  at  the  head  tree 
and  with  its  load  passes  down  the  main  cable  by  gravity,  the 
speed  being  controlled  by  the  yarding  engine.  On  reaching  the 
lower  end  of  the  cable  the  trolley  is  automatically  tripped  and 
the  log  lowered  onto  a  skidway  along  a  railroad.  Poles  100  feet 
long,  27  inches  in  diameter  at  the  butt  and  i  foot  in  diameter  at 
the  top  have  been  handled  with  ease.  The  average  time  re- 
quired to  traverse  the  distance  from  the  head  to  the  foot  of  the 
tramway  is  one  and  one-quarter  minutes. 

Another  type  of  single-cable  tramway  has  recently  been 
patented.  The  chief  features  are  a  stationary  track  cable  with 
intermediate  supports,  a  continuous  traction  cable,  a  secondary 


226  LOGGING 

track  cable  also  with  intermediate  supports,  an  engine  with 
several  drums  for  handling  the  cables  and  a  series  of  trolleys 
which  run  on  the  main  cable  carrying  the  logs.  The  trolleys  are 
returned  to  the  head  of  the  tramway  on  the  secondary  track 
cable. 

It  is  designed  to  bring  logs  from  a  yarding  engine  to  a  load- 
ing device  on  a  railroad  at  the  lower  terminus,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  62.  The  main  railroad  extends  under  the  tramway  for 
a  sufficient  distance  to  receive  the  required  number  of  empty 
cars.  The  framework  supports  the  engine  (25)  which  drives 
the  drums  (3),  (4),  (5)  and  (6).  The  end  of  the  main  track 
cable  (7)  passes  over  a  sheave  (not  shown)  which  has  a  constant 
tension  on  it  to  prevent  undue  slack  on  the  cable  between  inter- 
mediate supports  when  logs  are  traveling  between  them.  The 
secondary  track  cable  (8)  is  used  for  the  return  of  the  trolleys 
to  the  head  of  the  tramway.  The  endless  traction  cable  (g) 
passes  over  the  drum  (6)  and  is  shown  (10)  passing  to  the  upper 
end  of  the  tramway  where  it  is  run  through  a  sheave  block  and 
returned,  between  the  intermediate  supports,  to  the  drum  (6). 

The  tramway  is  operated  as  follows:  With  log  (11)  in  the 
position  shown,  the  operator  releases  the  brake  on  drum  (5) 
which  permits  the  cable  (12)  to  run  out  allowing  the  main  cable 
to  lower  under  its  own  weight,  until  it  assumes  the  position 
shown  by  the  dotted  line  (13).  The  log  then  rests  on  the  car 
directly  underneath  it.  The  tongs  (14)  are  then  released  from 
the  log  and  the  grips  removed  from  the  main  cable  which  is  at 
rest.  The  hooks  (16)  are  then  caught  in  the  carriages  (17)  and 
elevated  by  means  of  the  cable  (18)  and  drum  (4)  and  placed  on 
the  secondary  cable  (8).  The  grips  are  then  connected  with 
the  traction  cable  (9)  which  is  set  in  motion  by  the  drum  (6)  and 
they  are  carried  to  the  head  of  the  tramway  where  they  are  again 
transferred  to  the  main  cable  (7)  by  a  similar  device,  a  winch  on 
the  yarding  engine  being  substituted  for  the  drum  (4).  The 
main  cable  is  lowered  for  the  attachment  of  the  tongs  to  the  logs 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  cable  is  lowered  for  detaching  the  logs. 
When  the  log  has  been  attached,  the  main  cable  is  elevated  and 
the  grips  attached  to  the  traction  cable  (9).     The  drum  (6)  is 


AERIAL   TRAMWAYS 


227 


then  revolved  and  the  trolleys  and  log  drawn  to  the  lower  end 
of  the  tramway.  When  car  (19)  is  loaded,  drum  (3)  is  revolved 
and  by  means  of  cable  (21)  the  train  of  cars  is  drawn  to  the  left 
until  car  (22)  is  under  the  unloading  device.  When  all  the 
cars  have  been  loaded  they  are  pulled  out  by  a  locomotive  and 
empties  substituted  for  them. 


Fig.  62.  —  A  Single-cable  Tramway,     a.  Delivery  station.     /).  Details  of 
trolley,     c.  Profile  of  tramway  line. 


The  details  of  the  intermediate  supports,  trolleys  and  grips, 
also  the  method  of  hanging  the  main  and  secondary  cable  are 
shown  in  Fig.  62  a.  The  main  cable  is  clamped  securely  to 
the  hanger  and  serves  to  hold  the  supports  upright,  permitting 


228  LOGGING 

them  to  sway  slightly  as  the  loads  travel  along  the  cable.  The 
supports  are  further  braced  by  the  cables  (24). 

The  tramway  is  designed  to  carry  a  sufficient  number  of 
trolleys  to  keep  a  constant  line  of  logs  traveling  toward  the 
unloading  end  and  empty  trolleys  traveling  towards  the  upper 
end.  The  logs,  however,  should  be  spaced  far  enough  apart  so 
that  at  no  time  will  two  of  them  be  suspended  between  a  given 
set  of  intermediate  supports. 

A  profile  of  the  line  of  a  tramway  of  this  character  is  shown  in 
Fig.  62c. 

The  above  system  is  designed  for  ready  removal  from  one  site 
to  another,  the  framework  (2)  being  lowered  on  a  flat  car  for 
transport.  It  is  a  modification  of  one  known  as  the  Bleichert^ 
which  is  extensively  employed  for  transporting  timber,  ores  and 
other  products  in  mountainous  regions,  in  some  cases  for  dis- 
tances greater  than  20  miles. 

A  second  type,  known  as  the  endless  cable  tramway,  has  been 
employed  for  the  transportation  of  shingle  bolts.  A  tram  of  this 
character  built  in  CaHfornia  had  a  f-inch  main  cable  supported 
at  frequent  intervals  on  16-inch  sheave  wheels  attached  to  cross- 
arms  fastened  on  heavy  poles. 

The  cable  was  driven  by  a  donkey  engine  geared  to  a  6-foot 
vertical  drum  around  which  the  cable  was  wound  several  times 
and  then  passed  out  over  the  sheave  blocks.  About  halfway 
between  the  two  extremities  the  tramway  turned  a  right  angle, 
the  cable  passing  around  two  loose  drums  at  this  point. 

Shingle  blocks  were  brought  to  temporary  platforms  by  chutes 
and  were  attached  by  hand  to  the  grips  which  were  fixed  at 
intervals  along  the  cable.  The  bolts  were  tripped  automatically 
at  the  terminus. 

One  hundred  grips  were  operated  on  the  line  one-half  of  which 
were  traveling  loaded  and  the  remainder  returning  empty  to 
the  loading  point.  The  average  output  per  hour  for  the  tram- 
way was  thirty  cords  of  bolts. 

1  Adolf  Bleichert  &  Co.,  Leipzig  and  Wein.  For  a  description  of  their  system 
see  Modeme  Transportanlagen  im  Dienste  der  Holzgewinnung  and  Holzindustrie. 
Centralblatt  fiir  das  gesamte  Forstwesen,  October,  191 2,  pp.  451-460. 


AERIAL  TRAMWAYS  229 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO   CHAPTER   XV 

Anonymous:  Aerial  Snubbing  Device.  The  Timberman,  Portland,  Oregon, 
April,  1912,  pp.  49  and  52. 

Anonymous:  A  Newly  Patented  Aerial  Logging  Railway.  Western  Lumber- 
man, Toronto,  Ontario,  Canada,  December,  191 2,  pp.  40-41. 

FoRSTER,  G.  R.:   Das  forstliche  Transportwesen,  Wien,  1888,  pp.  242-250. 

Gayer,  Karl:  Forest  Udlization.  (Schlich's  Manual  of  Forestry,  2nd.  edit., 
pp.  346-352;  translated  from  the  German  by  W.  R.  Fisher.)  Bradbury, 
Agnew  and  Company  Ltd.,  London,  1908. 

Newby,  F.  E.:  Handling  Logs  on  Steep  Ground  with  a  Gravity  Cable  System. 
The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  31-32. 

Steinbus,  Ferdinand:  Die  Holzbringung  im  bayerischen  Hochgebirge  unter 
den  heutigen  wirtschaftlichen  Verhaltnissen,  Munchen,  1897,  pp.  31-39. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

TIMBER  SLIDES  AND    CHUTES 

Slides  are  channels  used  chiefly  for  transporting  logs,  although 
pulpwood,  crossties,  firewood,  etc.,  may  be  handled  in  this 
manner.  There  are  two  general  types;  namely,  earth  shdes 
and  timber  slides,  both  of  which  are  often  combined  to  form  a 
single  slide. 

They  are  in  frequent  use  in  Pennsylvania,  the  Appalachians, 
Idaho,  Montana,  the  Northwest  and,  to  a  limited  extent,  in 
New  England  and  New  York. 

Slides  are  built  down  the  valleys  of  streams  or  down  the  slopes 
of  mountains  but  they  can  seldom  be  constructed  profitably 
across  watersheds  because  the  cost  of  spanning  depressions  is 
too  great.  They  vary  in  length  from  a  few  hundred  feet  to 
several  miles.  They  are  chiefly  employed  in  mountainous 
regions,  although  they  are  occasionally  built  in  a  flat  country 
for  transporting  logs  for  short  distances. 

Earth  Slides.  —  An  earth  or  ground  slide  is  used  for  short 
distances  on  steep  grades  where  the  soil  is  free  from  rocks 
and  debris  that  would  hinder  the  movement  of  logs.  It  is  a 
furrow  which  is  made  by  dragging  logs  over  the  proposed 
route.  If  the  earth  is  easily  stirred  no  previous  preparation 
may  be  necessary,  otherwise  the  soil  must  be  loosened  in  places 
by  a  pick. 

An  improved  form  called  the  "trail  slide,"  consists  of  a  furrow 
made  in  a  manner  similar  to  a  ground  slide,  with  the  addition 
of  a  continuous  "fender"  skid  on  the  lower  side  of  the  trail. 
These  skids  are  from  12  to  18  inches  in  diameter  and  are 
fastened  together  by  a  lap  joint  pierced  with  a  2-inch  wooden 
pin,  or  with  a  §-inch  iron  spike.  The  joint  may  or  may  not  be 
supported  on  a  cross-skid.  Fender  skids  are  kept  in  place  by 
heavy  stakes  driven  into  the  ground  on  the  outer  side.     Slides 

230 


TIMBER   SLIDES   AND    CHUTES  23 1 

of  this  character  are  desirable  on  side-hills,  where  there  is  a 
tendency  for  the  logs  to  leave  an  earth  trail. 

Timber  Slides.  —  Timber  slides  consist  of  a  trough  or  chute 
made  of  round  or  sawed  timbers  supported  on  cross-skids  placed 
at  frequent  intervals.  On  low  grades  where  logs  will  not  run  by 
gravity  it  is  necessary  to  clear  out  a  right-of-way  8  or  10  feet 
wide  which  serves  both  for  the  slide  and  as  a  pathway  for  the 
animals  which  handle  the  tow  of  logs.     Where  the  grade  is 


Fig.  63.  —  View  down  a  Timber  Slide.     Idaho. 

sufficient  to  cause  the  logs  to  run  by  gravity,  a  right-of-way  4 
feet  wide  is  ample. 

A  common  form  of  round  timber  slide  consists  of  two  parallel 
timbers  supported  on  cross-skids  placed  from  8  to  15  feet  apart. 
The  timbers  are  from  9  inches  to  18  inches  in  diameter  and  from 
20  feet  to  60  feet  long  and  are  cut  from  trees  having  a  minimum 
taper.  Either  a  log  6  inches  or  8  inches  in  diameter  with  a 
hewed  face  or  a  4-inch  by  8-inch  plank  is  often  placed  between 
the  two  slide  timbers  and  fastened  to  the  cross-skids.  The  poles 
are  placed  from  4  inches  to  6  inches  apart  at  their  nearest  point 


232 


LOGGING 


on  a  two-pole  slide  and  from  8  inches  to  15  inches  apart  when 
the  third  pole  is  used.  The  timbers  are  usually  placed  with 
their  butts  up  grade  because  they  sliver  less;  some,  however, 
prefer  them  placed  in  the  opposite  manner.  The  timbers  are 
joined  together  by  a  simple  lap  joint,  and  are  sunk  into  a  skid 
directly  beneath  them  and  fastened  to  it  by  i|-inch  or  2-inch 
hardwood  treenails,  or  §-inch  by  12-inch  iron  spikes.  In  order 
to  strengthen  the  slide  the  joints  are  always  broken. 


ir<*As^  ;^  X. 


Fig.  64.  — The  Terminus  of  a  Log  Slide.     Idaho. 

On  level  stretches  a  slide  is  built  on  the  ground  and  requires 
a  minimum  of  bracing  and  support,  while  on  steep  pitches  and 
in  crossing  depressions  it  is  supported  on  crib  work  and  is 
thoroughly  braced  because  rigidity  is  important. 

When  the  round  logs  are  in  place  and  securely  fastened  to  the 
cross-skids,  men  are  set  to  work  to  hew  the  inner  faces  of  the 
slide  timbers.  This  is  particular  work  because  any  irregularities 
on  the  face  of  the  sHde  will  cause  logs  to  jump.  The  scoring  line 
is  laid  off  with  a  chalk  line  and  the  timbers  then  scored  with  a 
felling  ax  and  finally  hewed  smooth  with  a  broadax. 


TIMBER    SLIDES   AND    CHUTES 


233 


A  common  method  of  dumping  logs  from  a  slide  is  to  build 
one  side  several  inches  lower  than  the  other.  Another  method 
used  where  there  are  several  dumping  grounds  is  to  hew  down 
the  side  of  the  slide  on  the  dump  side  and  place  a  switch 
called  a   "  whippoorwill "  diagonally  across  the  slide  timbers. 


Fig.  65.  —  A  Whippoorwill  Switch  used  for  throwing  Logs  from  a  Shde. 

The  lower  part  of  the  slide  ends  at  a  landing,  where  the  grade 
should  be  level  or  sHghtly  ascending  to  check  the  speed  of  the 
logs.  When  the  log  strikes  the  switch  it  is  shunted  off.  When 
it  is  desired  to  send  logs  past  a  given  dump  the  upper  end  of  the 
switch  is  removed  and  placed  across  the  depression  on  the  slide 
timber  and  fastened  by  two  heavy  treenails. 


Fig.  66.  —  A  Sawed  Timber  Slide,  sometimes  used  where  the  Wear  is  Excessive. 

The  Hfe  of  a  pole  slide  is  from  six  to  ten  years,  when  kept 
in  repair. 

SKdes  which  are  near  a  sawmill  and  subject  to  constant  use 
are  preferably  made  from  sawed  timbers. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  slides  called  "fore-and-aft"  roads  or 
"pole  chutes"  are  used  for  trailing  logs  from  yarding  engines 


234  LOGGING 

to  a  landing,  when  power  for  moving  the  logs  is  provided  by  a 
road  engine. 

A  fore-and-aft  road  consists  of  a  trough  from  two  to  five  poles 
wide,  made  from  long  straight  timber  with  a  minimum  diameter  of 
lo  inches.  The  ends  of  the  poles  are  beveled,  fitted  together  and 
drift-bolted  to  skids  placed  transversely  under  them  at  inter- 
vals of  from  lo  to  15  feet,  thus  providing  a  stable  foundation. 


Fig.  67.  — a  Fore-and-aft  or  Pole  Road  used  with  a  Road  Engine. 
Pacific  Coast. 


Side  braces  placed  at  intervals  of  15  or  20  feet  prevent  the  poles 
from  spreading.  The  slide  follows  the  ground  level  except  where 
it  crosses  deep  depressions  or  streams,  when  it  is  supported  on 
cribwork.  The  roads  are  built  as  straight  as  possible  to  decrease 
the  loss  of  engine  power  through  friction. 

A  fore-and-aft  road  requires  from  90,000  to  120,000  feet  of 
timber  per  mile  according  to  the  amount  of  cribbing  neces- 
sary. 


TIMBER   SLIDES   AND    CHUTES  235 

Chutes  are  also  employed  on  the  Pacific  Coast  as  the  terminus 
of  a  skid  or  pole  road,  where  the  logs  are  dumped  into  a  stream, 
pond  or  other  body  of  water.      These  chutes  consist  of  three 


Fig.  68.  —  A  Timber  Chule.     New  Hampshire. 

different  parts;  namely,  the  head  which  is  cross-skidded  like  a 
skid  road,  the  "slip"  or  chute  proper  and  the  "apron"  or 
terminus.  The  cross-skids  at  the  head  offer  less  friction  than 
a  pole  chute  and  enable  the  logs  to  be  started  readily.  The  poles 
m  the  chute  proper  are  drift-bolted  to  heavy  cross-stringers  set 


236  LOGGING 

at  lo-foot  intervals  on  the  upper  part,  and  closer  together  near 
the  base  where  the  strain  is  greatest.  Side  poles  serve  as  fenders 
to  keep  the  logs  in  the  chute.  The  apron  extends  out  over  the 
water  in  order  to  prevent  the  logs  from  striking  bottom  and  is 
nearly  parallel  to  the  surface.  The  change  in  gradient  from  the 
slip  to  the  apron  must  be  gradual  or  the  impact  of  the  logs 
against  the  latter  will  soon  destroy  it.  Chutes  are  used  only 
when  no  other  means  of  transport  is  feasible;  for  even  under  the 
most  favorable  operating  conditions  many  logs  are  broken  or 
damaged. 

In  the  Northeast  chutes  similar  to  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  68 
are  occasionally  built  for  bringing  logs  down  steep  slopes. 

Another  form  of  rough  chute  used  in  the  same  region  is  built 
as  follows:  A  strip  5  or  6  feet  wide  is  cleared  down  the  slope. 
Logs  are  then  snaked  to  a  skidway  at  the  head  of  the  cleared 
strip,  ready  to  be  sent  down  by  gravity.  The  first  logs  that  go 
down  are  used  to  form  a  crude  trough  of  parallel  logs  down  which 
the  bulk  of  the  timber  passes.  Chutes  of  this  character  work 
best  after  a  heavy  frost  or  light  snowfall. 

In  parts  of  the  Appalachian  region  the  logs  are  frequently 
brought  down  the  beds  of  the  mountain  streams.  Where  the 
grades  are  steep  and  the  bottom  is  smooth,  little  preparation  is 
needed,  but  where  the  bed  is  rough,  poles  are  laid  lengthwise  in 
the  stream.  The  logs  are  started  at  the  head  of  a  cove  and  pass 
down  the  slide  with  great  rapidity,  collecting  in  a  rough-and- 
tumble  skidway  at  its  base.  Although  timber  is  often  damaged 
by  breakage  this  is  offset  by  the  cheapness  of  transportation. 

GRADES 

The  grade  is  an  important  feature  of  all  slides.  On  trailing 
slides  the  grades  are  so  low  that  logs  will  not  run  by  gravity, 
and  animal  or  other  power  is  required  to  keep  them  in  motion. 
Running  slides  have  a  grade  sufficient  in  height  to  permit  the 
transport  of  logs  by  gravity. 

Shdes  vary  in  gradient  at  different  points  along  the  line  and 
in  some  parts  may  be  trailing  slides  and  in  other  sections  running 


TIMBER   SLIDES    AND    CHUTES 


237 


slides.  The  grade  necessary  to  make  logs  run  by  gravity  depends 
on  the  character  and  condition  of  the  shde,  the  kind  and  size  of 
the  timber  and  whether  the  slide  is  used  dry,  greased  or  iced. 
The  greater  the  weight  of  the  log  the  faster  its  speed,  hence 
large  or  long  logs  will  run  on  lower  grades  than  small  or  short 
ones.  Heavy  hardwood  logs  will  run  on  lower  grades  than 
most  soft-woods,  and  peeled  logs  will  run  on  lower  grades  than 
if  unpeeled. 

Earth  slides  with  a  25  per  cent  grade  may  be  used  during  the 
summer  but  if  the  grade  is  as  low  as  10  per  cent  they  are  used 
to  best  advantage  during  cold  weather  when  they  can  be  iced. 

During  the  warm  season,  horses  are  often  used  to  drag  logs 
in  earth  slides.  Several  logs  are  fastened  together  by  grabs  into 
a  ''turn"  and  a  team  is  attached  to  the  forward  log.  In  cold 
weather  animals  can  be  wholly  or  partially  dispensed  with. 

Iced  timber  sUdes  are  most  efficient  and  therefore  may  be 
used  on  the  lowest  grades;  those  lubricated  with  skid  grease 
rank  next,  while  dry  timber  sHdes  are  the  least  efficient. 

The  following  table  of  grades  for  running  timber  slides  is  from 
European  practice:^ 


Material  transported. 

Per  cent  of  grade. 

Dry  slide. 

Ice  slide. 

Firewood 

Crossties 

Logs 

20-35 

30 

15-20 

6-12 
3-6 

Grades  of  25  per  cent  are  considered  best  for  dry  running 
timber  shdes  in  which  large  logs  are  to  be  handled,  although  45 
per  cent  may  be  used  on  short  stretches  if  the  shde  is  built 
strong  and  rigid.  The  minimum  grade  should  not  be  less  than 
10  per  cent. 

Timber  sKdes  with  maximum  grades  of  80  per  cent  and  an 
average  grade  of  60  per  cent  have  been  operated,  but  are  not 
desirable  because  of  the  heavy  loss  through  breakage. 

1  From  Forest  Utilization,  by  Karl  Gayer.  (Vol.  V,  "  Schlich's  Manual  of 
Forestry,"  p.  325.) 


238 


LOGGING 


Curves  on  slides  must  be  laid  out  with  reference  to  the  length 
of  material  to  be  handled.  Sharp  curves  are  always  undesirable 
and  especially  so  on  steep  pitches  because  the  wear  is  excessive 
and  logs  are  likely  to  jump  out  of  the  slide. 

It  is  necessary  on  2 -pole  and  3 -pole  slides  to  elevate  the  outer 
sKde  timber,  the  amount  of  elevation  depending  on  the  degree 
of  curvature,  the  grade  and  the  character  of  material  that  is 
being  transported.  A  radius  less  than  200  feet  is  not  desirable 
for  anv  form  of  slide. 


pm^ii'W'^^^^:-] 


LJ\- 


Fig.  69.  —  A  Turn  of  Logs  ready  to  move  along  a  Trailing  Slide. 


OPERATION 


Running  slides  are  more  expensive  to  operate  than  trailing 
slides  because  of  the  greater  construction  and  maintenance  ex- 
pense, and  the  added  cost  of  returning  to  the  slide  the  logs 
which  have  jumped  out  of  it. 


TIMBER   SLIDES   AND    CHUTES  239 

Logs  are  usually  rolled  directly  into  slides  either  from  large 
skidways  on  which  many  logs  are  stored  when  extensive  runs  are 
made,  or  from  small  skidways  where  the  logs  are  sent  down  as  they 
are  yarded.  In  some  cases  skidways  are  dispensed  with,  the 
timbers  being  spread  apart  at  the  head  of  the  slide  and  the  logs 
dragged  directly  into  it. 

On  running  slides  logs  are  sent  down  singly.  Where  a  part 
or  all  of  the  slide  is  a  trailing  one  from  ten  to  forty  logs  are 
made  up  into  a  turn,  but  if  there  is  a  possibility  of  the  logs 
running  even  for  a  short  distance  they  are  not  fastened  together. 

In  making  up  a  turn  on  a  trailing  sHde  a  log  is  rolled  from  the 
skidway  into  the  slide,  and  is  then  hauled  down  a  log  length  by 
a  tow  horse  or  team,  so  that  the  next  log  may  be  rolled  in.  Both 
are  then  moved  ahead  for  another  log  length  by  attaching  the 
tow  Hne  to  the  rear  of  the  last  log.  The  process  is  repeated  until 
a  turn  is  made  up,  when  a  team  is  attached  to  the  rear  end  of  the 
last  log  by  a  chain  or  rope  from 
30  feet  to  50  feet  long,  to  which 
is  fastened  an  "L"  hook,  swamp 
hook,  grab  hook  or  "jay  grab." 
The  tow  is  then  started  for  the 
•  landing.  If  the  logs  start  to 
run  in  the  shde  the  teamster  can  Fig.  70.  — An  "L"  Hook  used  for 
readily  detach  the  hook  and  free  Attaching  the  Tow  Line  to  the  Turn 
the  team  which  otherwise  might       °     °^''' 

be  dragged  down.  The  team  drags  the  turn  of  logs  to  the  land- 
ing, or  until  the  grade  becomes  sufficient  for  the  logs  to  run, 
whereupon  the  tow  is  started  down  the  slide  and  the  team 
returns  to  the  head  for  more  logs.  The  tow  is  picked  up  by 
another  team  on  the  first  "dead"  stretch  and  dragged  to  the 
next  running  portion  of  the  slide. 

To  reduce  friction  during  the  summer  season  the  slow  stretches 
of  a  slide  are  watered,  or  are  greased  with  a  cheap  form  of  skid 
grease  or  crude  petroleum.  During  the  cold  season  such  stretches 
are  iced  by  throwing  water  on  them  at  night.  If  the  stretch  is 
short  and  the  water  is  close  at  hand  it  may  be  poured  on  with 
a  bucket,  otherwise  a  barrel  is  used  in  which  two  holes  are 


240  LOGGING 

bored  in  one  end,  one  over  each  slide  stick.     The  barrel  is  then 
filled  with  water  and  lowered  down  the  shde  during  the  night. 

On  steep  slopes  where  logs  run  fast  and  are  apt  to  leave  the 
slide,  several  devices  are  used  to  check  the  speed.  A  common 
method  is  by  the  use  of  a  "goose-neck"  or  "scotch"  made  from 
i§-inch  or  2-inch  round  or  square  iron  fashioned  as  shown  in 
Fig.  71,  a  and  b.  They  are  placed  in  holes  bored  through  the 
shde  timbers  and  as  the  logs  pass  over  them,  the  prongs  bite  into 
the  wood  and  retard  the  progress.  Logs  will  leave  the  slide  unless 
the  goose-necks  are  placed  opposite  each  other.  The  holes  in 
which  the  goose-necks  are  fitted  are  bored  entirely  through  the 


n^Tr^ 


Fig.  71.  —  Goose-necks  used  for  checking  the  Speed  of  Logs  on  Heavy  Grades. 
a  and  b  show  two  Common  Forms,  c  shows  the  ■Manner  of  placing  them  in 
the  Shde  Timbers. 

shde  timbers  so  that  dirt  cannot  accumulate  in  them.  When  not 
in  use  the  goose-necks  may  be  removed  or  dropped  into  notches 
cut  into  the  slide  timbers  for  that  purpose. 

Another  form  of  brake  consists  of  a  log  one  end  of  which  is 
pivoted  to  a  framework  erected  above  the  slide.  The  free  end  is 
armed  with  spikes  that  drag  on  the  logs  as  they  pass  under  them. 

Several  slide  tenders  are  required  to  keep  slides  greased  and 
watered,  adjust  goose-necks  and  make  repairs.  As  a  general 
rule,  several  kinds  and  sizes  of  logs  are  run  indiscriminately 
during  the  day,  and  it  is  necessary  to  use  goose-necks  on  large 
logs  and  to  remove  them  for  the  slower  running  small  logs. 
Where  logs  have  jumped  out,  laborers  are  required  to  return 


TIMBER    SLIDES   AND    CHUTES  241 

them  to  the  slide.  This  is  done  by  building  an  improvised  chute 
from  the  ground  to  the  slide,  and  dragging  the  logs  up  with  a 
team  and  tow  line,  or  by  rolling  the  logs  up  by  hand  on  spiked 
skids.  This  work  is  done  after  the  season's  sliding  has  been 
completed. 

COST 

SHdes  vary  greatly  in  cost  depending  on  their  character,  the 
amount  of  cribbing  required,  the  number  of  curves,  the  season 
of  the  year  in  which  they  are  built  and  the  efficiency  of  the  labor. 

Running  slides  are  the  most  expensive  form  to  construct, 
because  they  must  be  built  stronger  and  more  rigid  than  other 
forms.  Curves  require  about  one-third  more  labor  to  build  than 
do  straight  stretches.  Shdes  constructed  during  the  winter  cost 
about  25  per  cent  more  to  build  than  during  warm  weather  and 
are  often  troublesome  in  the  spring  when  the  frost  leaves  the 
ground. 

The  cost  per  rod  is  approximately  as  follows:  Earth  slides, 
from  20  to  50  cents;  2-pole  to  3-pole  slides,  from  $3  to  $5; 
plank  slides,  from  $1.50  to  $2;  chutes  on  the  Pacific  Coast, 
from  $8  to  $10. 

The  cost  per  mile  of  operating  a  slide  ranges  from  50  cents  to 
$1  per  thousand  feet  log  scale. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE   TO    CHAPTER   XVI 

Von  Almburg,  Dr.  F.  Augenholzer:  Beitrag  zur  Kenntnis  der  dynamischen 

Vorgange  beim  Abriesen  des  Holzes  in  Holzriesen.     Centralblatt  fur  das 

gesamte  Forstwesen,  April,  1911,  pp.  161-179. 
FoRSTER,  G.  R.:    Das  Forstliche  Transportwesen.     pp.  45-68.     Moritz  Perles. 

Wien,  1888. 
Gayer,  Karl:  Forest  Utilization.     (Schlich's  "Manual  of  Forestry,"  Vol.  V,  pp. 

316-322;    translated  by  W.  R.  Fisher.)      Bradbury,  Agnew  and  Company, 

Ltd.,  London,  1908. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
FOREST   RAILROADS 

POLE    ROADS 

Pole  roads  were  formerly  used  by  lumbermen  because  the 
material  for  construction  could  be  secured  on  the  operation  at 
no  expense  except  for  labor  and  stumpage  but  they  are  primitive 
in  character  and  are  now  seldom  used  except  on  an  occasional 
small  operation  where  sawed  wooden  rails  or  steel  rails  cannot 
be  secured  at  reasonable  cost.  Animals  are  used  as  draft  power, 
although  on  down  grades  the  cars  may  descend  by  gravity  under 
control  of  a  brakeman.  Pole  roads  are  seldom  built  for  dis- 
tances greater  than  from  2  to  2§  miles. 

A  25-foot  right-of-way  is  required  from  which  all  brush  must 
be  removed  and  stumps  grubbed  out  or  cut  level  with  the  ground. 
The  grade  is  then  established.  Turnouts  for  returning  teams 
are  provided  at  intervals  of  from  |  to  f  of  a  mile.  On  a  track 
of  this  character,  ascending  grades  greatly  decrease  the  hauling 
ability  of  animals.  The  maximum  grade  for  loaded  cars  hauled 
by  two  animals  is  1.5  per  cent.  Where  eight  horses  are  used 
trams  with  15  per  cent  ascending  grades  on  the  route  to  the  woods 
and  3  per  cent  ascending  grades  for  loaded  cars  en  route  to  the 
mill  have  been  used  successfully. 

The  roads  have  a  gauge  of  5  or  6  feet,  and  the  rails  are  long, 
straight  poles  from  9  to  12  inches  in  diameter,  with  as  little 
taper  as  can  be  secured.  The  poles  are  hewed  on  the  inner  face 
to  reduce  friction  on  the  wheel  flange.  They  are  laid  with  the 
butts  all  in  one  direction,  the  top  of  one  pole  being  lap- jointed 
to  the  butt  of  the  following  one.  Where  the  poles  are  not  of  the 
same  size  at  the  joint  they  are  hewed  down  until  the  car  wheels 
can  pass  over  them  readily. 

On  a  hard  bottom  the  poles  are  laid  directly  on  the  ground 
and  are  ballasted  to  make  an  even  track.     They  are  braced 

242 


FOREST   RAILROADS 


243 


at  frequent  intervals  by  stakes  driven  close  to  them  on  the  out- 
side. At  curves  where  the  track  is  liable  to  spread,  braces  are 
placed  between  the  rails  and  also  between  the  outer  rail  and  trees 
or  stumps.  Cross-skids  are  used  only  on  soft  ground  and  are 
spaced  from  6  to  8  feet  apart.  They  are  short  round  blocks 
placed  under  the  rails  but  they  do  not  extend  across  the  track  as 


Photograph  by  H.  R.  McMillan. 
Fig.  72.  —  View  down  a  Pole  Tram-Road  in  Idaho. 


they  would  interfere  with  the  foothold  of  the  draft  animals. 
Poles  are  held  together  at  the  lap-joints  and  fastened  to  the  cross- 
skids  by  means  of  wooden  treenails  from  i|  to  2  inches  in  diam- 
eter, which  are  driven  through  the  pole  and  skid  into  the  ground. 
A  crew  for  building  a  pole  road  comprises  six  men  and  one 
team.  Where  the  rails  can  be  obtained  along  the  right-of-way 
a  crew  will  cut  and  peel  the  necessary  poles  and  build  500  feet  of 


244 


LOGGING 


straight  track  daily.  Curves  require  about  one-third  more  labor 
than  straight  track.  In  Idaho  the  cost  of  the  construction  of 
9  miles  of  pole  road  on  rolling  ground  was  $500  per  mile,  while 
on  the  Pacific  Coast  the  cost  has  run  as  high  as  $1000  per  mile. 

The  maintenance  of  a  pole  road  is  low.  The  chief  item  aside 
from  the  occasional  replacement  of  a  pole,  consists  in  removing 
splinters  from  the  rails,  usually  with  a  spade,  and  also  greasing 


1                                           .'        A  •           -T 

.-..'JL 

■fpi 

■■::'r%im 

-^.,if ; 

-S 

.'V 

"HiiWI^- 

/ /^^EiPPi 

■•  V 

Photograph  by  H.  R.  McMillan. 
Fig.  73.  — The  Type  of  Car  used  on  a  Pole  Road  in  Idaho. 


the  rails  with  skid  grease.     One  man  can  care  for  two  miles  of 
track  on  half  time. 

The  cars  are  built  with  a  heavy  framework  of  sawed  timbers 
mounted  on  four  wheels,  each  of  which  is  about  42  inches  in 
diameter  with  a  slightly  concave  face,  a  4-inch  flange  on  the  inner 
side  and  a  2-inch  flange  on  the  outer.  Each  wheel  turns  on  a 
2-inch  fixed  axle  provided  with  a  side  pla}'  of  6  inches  so  that  the 
wheels  can  adjust  themselves  to  the  inequalities  of  the  rail  and 
the  uneven  gauge. 


FOREST  RAILROADS  245 

The  bunks  are  10  feet  long  and  from  10  to  12  feet  apart.  A 
reach  which  passes  through  the  body  of  the  car  and  projects  2| 
feet  beyond  the  bunks  serves  as  a  point  of  attachment  for  the 
draft  power. 

Cars  of  this  character  drawn  by  two  horses  will  carry  1400  feet 
log  scale  per  load.  A  team  will  haul  loaded  cars  from  8  to  10 
miles  daily. 

On  an  Idaho  pole  tram  i|  miles  in  length,  two  horses  hauled 
from  7500  to  9000  feet  log  scale  daily,  each  car  load  containing 
approximately  1600  feet.  The  cost  of  transport  was  about  85 
cents  per  thousand  feet. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  a  team  of  eight  horses  hauled  20,000 
feet  daily  on  a  i^-mile  tram  road,  each  car  averaging  5000  feet. 

Two  horses  are  commonly  used  although  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
as  many  as  eight  are  employed  on  some  of  the  roads. 

Light  geared  locomotives  have  been  used  to  a  limited  extent 
but  they  are  not  adapted  to  this  type  of  rail. 


STRINGER   ROADS 

The  stringer  road  soon  superseded  the  pole  road  on  operations 
where  a  sawmill  was  available  for  sawing  rails. 

The  early  stringer  roads  were  operated  by  animal  power;  but 
light  geared  locomotives  are  now  used  almost  exclusively  except 
for  stocking  small  mills. 

Stringer  roads  have  a  greater  capacity  than  pole  roads  and 
may  be  used  to  stock  a  single-band  mill.  They  are  employed 
chiefly  on  operations  where  suitable  hardwoods  are  abundant  for 
rails,  where  the  operation  is  remote  and  the  cost  of  transporting 
steel  rails  is  excessive,  where  the  length  of  haul  is  comparatively 
short  and  where  the  daily  output  is  limited.  Such  conditions 
exist  in  the  hardwood  region  of  the  Appalachians  where  this  t^'pe 
of  road  is  common. 

The  disadvantages  of  a  stringer  road  as  compared  with  steel 
railroads  are  that  the  rails  become  soft  and  wear  out  rapidly  in 
rainy  and  wet  weather;  wheel  flanges  climb  wooden  rails  more 
readily  than  steel;    the  cost  of  repairs  and  material  for  a  year's 


246 


LOGGING 


operation  will  largely  meet  the  first  cost  of  steel  rails;    and  the 
road  is  about  75  per  cent  less  efficient. 

The  right-of-way  for  a  stringer  road  must  be  carefully  graded, 
and  crib  bridges  or  trestles  built  where  necessary.  The  grades 
should  not  exceed  3  per  cent  on  the  main  line  and  8  per  cent 
on  spurs.  The  preparation  of  the  roadbed  is  as  expensive  as 
for  a  narrow-gauge  steel  road,  the  only  saving  effected  being 
the  original  cost  of  rails. 


Fig.  74.  —  A  Stringer  Road  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains. 


A  stringer  road  3  or  4  miles  in  length  is  limited  in  capacity  to 
40,000  or  50,000  feet  of  logs  per  day. 

The  rails  are  6  by  6  inches  in  size  and  are  composed  of  two 
sawed  pieces,  each  3  by  6  inches,  placed  one  on  top  of  the  other. 
The  rails  are  fastened  to  the  crossties  and  to  each  other  by  wire 
spikes.  The  top  rail  must  be  of  some  wood  that  will  not  splinter 
readily,  such  as  beech  and  hard  maple.  Sometimes  the  rail  is 
also  covered  with  strap  iron  to  prevent  wear.  The  lower  rail 
may  be  made  of  an  inferior  grade  of  timber  such  as  wormy 
oak. 


FOREST   RAILROADS  247 

The  rails  are  spiked  to  round  crossties  from  8  to  12  inches  in 
diameter  and  7  feet  long,  which  are  cut  along  the  track  and  are 
spaced  from  18  to  24  inches  apart  on  main  lines,  and  from  24  to 
30  inches  on  spurs.     The  gauge  is  3I  or  4  feet. 

The  cost  of  maintenance  of  a  stringer  road  in  constant  use  is 
heavy  because  the  rails  sliver  badly  and  break,  requiring  such 
frequent  repairs  after  the  first  six  months  that  the  road  will  be 
practically  rebuilt  in  two  years. 

The  cost  of  constructing  stringer  roads,  exclusive  of  the  value 
of  the  timber  used,  ranges  between  $800  and  $1200  per  mile, 
but  if  many  bridges  are  required  the  cost  exceeds  this. 

Geared  locomotives  are  used,  the  weights  varying  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  tons  on  main  lines  and  from  fifteen  to  seventeen 
tons  on  spurs.     Larger  ones  are  too  heavy  for  a  wooden  track. 

A  light-weight,  2 -truck,  8-wheel  skeleton  car  is  preferred  for 
these  roads.  The  wheels  are  20  or  24  inches  in  diameter  with  a 
6-inch  tread  which  helps  to  keep  them  on  the  tracks  where  the 
gauge  is  too  wide.  Cars  of  this  character,  built  for  handling  logs 
up  to  20  feet  in  length,  are  from  22  to  24  feet  long  with  bunks 
7I  or  8  feet  wide,  and  are  equipped  with  hand  brakes.  Each 
car  weighs  about  two  tons,  has  a  rated  capacity  of  from  15,000 
to  20,000  pounds  weight  and  usually  carries  from  1000  to  1200 
feet  of  logs. 

STEEL-RAIL   ROADS 

The  successful  use  of  steel-rail  logging  roads  began  in  1876, 
when  Scott  Gerrish,  a  logger  in  southern  Michigan,  built  a 
railroad  for  transporting  logs  from  Lake  George  to  the  Muskegon 
River  down  which  they  were  driven  to  the  mill.  The  number 
of  logging  railroads  increased  rapidly  and  in  1881  there  were 
seventy-one  in  operation  in  Michigan  and  five  in  Wisconsin. 
In  1 910  there  were  approximately  2000  logging  railroads^  with 
about  30,000  miles  of  track  in  operation  in  the  United  States. 

Rail  transport  is  gaining  in  favor  in  all  sections  of  the  country 
and  with  high  stumpage  values  will  become  the  preferred  form 
of  transport  except  where  conditions  are  especially  favorable  for 

1  See  The  American  Lumberman,  Chicago,  Illinois,  March  19,  1910,  p.  34. 


248  LOGGING 

floating  and  rafting.  The  only  region  in  which  their  use  is  not 
extensive  is  in  the  New  England  States  where  water  transporta- 
tion has  been  the  custom  for  years,  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  merchantable  species  will  float,  that  the  region  is 
traversed  by  numerous  streams  and  that  trunk  lines  do  not 
penetrate  the  forest  regions  to  any  extent. 

Advantages  of  Railroad  Transportation 

(i)  Accessibility.  Railroads  have  made  large  areas  of  timber 
accessible  which  otherwise  could  not  be  logged  because  of  the 
lack  of  streams  for  floating  logs,  or  the  absence  of  suitable  manu- 
facturing sites  and  shipping  facilities  on  the  natural  water 
outlets. 

(2)  Independence  of  climatic  conditions.  Rail  transport  ren- 
ders a  logger  practically  free  from  climatic  influences  since  he 
is  not  dependent  on  a  snowfall  to  furnish  a  bottom  for  hauling, 
or  on  flood  waters  to  float  his  logs.  This  enables  him  to  operate 
throughout  the  year,  with  possible  short  interruptions  due  to 
heavy  rainfall  or  snowfall. 

(3)  Market  conditions.  The  use  of  railroad  transport  does 
not  force  the  manufacturer  to  anticipate  market  conditions 
months  in  advance,  because  logs  can  be  cut  and  hauled  to  the  mill 
on  short  notice  and  special  requirements  for  long  timbers  or  for 
a  heav}-  cut  can  be  readily  met.  The  plant  can  be  closed  during 
dull  market  periods  without  carrying  on  hand  a  large  quantity  of 
logs  in  the  forest,  subject  to  damage  from  fire,  insects,  and  sap- 
stain.  The  operator  can  turn  over  his  money  at  frequent 
intervals  and  need  not  invest  a  large  sum  in  advance  in  logging 
expenses. 

(4)  Utilization  of  hardwoods.  The  logger  is  able  to  bring 
out  all  species.  This  reduces  logging  expense,  because  of  the 
heavier  stand  per  acre  secured. 

(5)  No  loss  of  logs  in  transport. 

(6)  Clean  logs.  Rail  transport  lands  the  logs  at  their  desti- 
nation free  from  gravel,  sand,  iron  and  other  foreign  matter.  A 
hardwood  manufacturer  operating  on  one  of  the  large  rivers  esti- 
mates that  clean  logs  can  be  manufactured  1 5  cents  per  thousand 


FOREST   RAILROADS  249 

cheaper  because  of  the  saving  in  saws,  saw-fiHng  expense  and 
lost  time  on  the  part  of  sawmill  labor.  This  saving  is  very 
appreciable  in  large  plants.  The  value  of  some  hardwoods,  such 
as  basswood  for  cooperage  stock  and  birch  for  spool  stock,  is 
strongly  influenced  by  the  brightness  of  the  wood,  and  even 
though  such  species  can  be  floated  their  value  is  often  reduced 
by  exposure  to  weather  and  water. 

Railroads  for  logging  purposes  can  usually  be  constructed 
much  cheaper  than  trunk  roads  because  higher  grades  and 
sharper  curves  may  be  used  and  also  because  the  roadbed  need 
not  always  be  placed  in  first-class  condition  to  do  satisfactory 
work.  In  a  rough  region,  however,  the  initial  expense  is  great 
and  the  cost  may  be  prohibitive  if  many  miles  of  road  must  be 
constructed  to  reach  a  tract.  Under  normal  circumstances, 
railroads  are  chiefly  adapted  to  large  operations  since  the  con- 
struction charge  must  be  distributed  over  a  large  tonnage  if 
the  cost  per  thousand  feet  of  timber  handled  is  to  be  kept 
within  reasonable  limits. 


CHOICE    OF    GAUGE 

The  choice  of  a  narrow-  or  standard-gauge  road  for  logging 
operations  will  be  governed  by  the  size  of  the  operation,  the 
topography,  and  the  amount  of  capital  available  for  investment. 
The  final  choice,  however,  should  be  governed  not  only  by  the 
initial  cost  of  construction  and  equipment,  but  also  by  the  cost 
of  operation,  because  the  increased  construction  cost  of  a  stand- 
ard-gauge may  be  more  than  compensated  by  a  reduced  operating 
charge 

Narrow-gauge  roads  can  be  constructed  cheaper  than  standard- 
gauge  because  (i)  the  width  of  cuts  and  fifls  is  less;  (2)  sharper 
curves^  are  permissible  because  of  the  shorter  wheel-base  of 
locomotives  and  cars;  (3)  the  cost  of  track  laying  is  less  per  mile 
owing  to  the  use  of  lighter  rails  and  ties;  (4)  the  initial  expense 
for  rolling  stock  and  motive  power  is  not  so  great. 

1  Curves  as  high  as  50  degrees  have  been  negotiated  by  narrow-gauge  geared 
locomotives  but  a  lower  degree  is  desirable  for  efficient  work. 


250  LOGGING 

There  is  little  difference  in  the  cost  of  trestles  and  other  timber 
work  for  narrow-  and  standard -gauge  roads.  A  narrow-gauge 
road  is  desirable  for  a  limited  output  in  a  rough  region  because 
the  cost  may  be  one- third  less  than  that  of  a  standard-gauge. 
It  therefore  appeals  to  loggers  with  Hmited  funds.  It  is  also 
desirable  in  light  or  scattering  stands  where  the  track  must  be 
moved  frequently.  On  soft  bottom  the  track  is  easier  to  keep 
in  operating  condition  owing  to  the  lighter  equipment  used  and 
the  smaller  loads  hauled. 

Where  a  large  tonnage  is  handled,  standard -gauge  roads  are 
more  economical  to  operate  because  larger  locomotives  and  cars 
can  be  used  and  the  cost  of  operation  per  thousand  feet  for  wages, 
fuel,  oil  and  repairs  for  the  heavier  locomotives  and  cars  will  be 
less  because  of  increased  hauling  capacity. 

Standard-gauge  is  also  desirable  because  trunk-line  cars  may 
be  operated  over  the  logging  road.  This  is  a  great  advantage 
where  logs,  pulpwood,  tanbark  and  other  forest  products  are 
to  be  shipped  to  outside  points,  since  cars  can  be  loaded  in  the 
forest  and  hauled  to  destination  without  reloading. 

RIGHTS-OF-WAY 

The  right  of  loggers  to  build  railroads  across  the  lands  of  others 
is  not  recognized  by  the  courts  except  where  the  roads  have  been 
chartered  by  the  State.  In  the  latter  case  the  right  of  Eminent 
Domain  is  granted,  and  a  line  can  be  forced  across  foreign 
holdings  by  condemnation  proceedings  and  the  payment  of  just 
compensation  to  the  owner. 

Many  logging  roads  are  not  incorporated  because  the  route 
frequently  does  not  tap  a  section  in  which  any  tonnage,  other 
than  that  of  the  owners,  will  originate.  Further  the  incorpora- 
tion of  the  road  subjects  it  to  regulations  governing  the  hours  of 
labor  for  train  crews,  use  of  air  brakes,  height  of  draw  bars  on 
the  equipment,  filing  of  tariffs,  and  the  submission  of  reports 
to  the  State  Railroad  Commission. 

Chartered  roads  must  be  prepared  to  handle  freight  and 
passenger  traffic,  and  many  logging  companies  do  not  feel  justi- 
fied in  maintaining  the  necessary  equipment  for  this  purpose, 


FOREST    RAILROADS  251 

especially  since  the  handling  of  outside  traffic  at  times  interferes 
with  the  operation  of  logging  trains. 

Where  the  owner  of  a  non-chartered  road  desires  a  right-of- 
way  across  the  property  of  another  the  land  may  be  bought  at 
private  sale,  although  this  course  is  seldom  desirable  unless  the 
road  is  ultimately  to  become  a  "common  carrier,"  inasmuch  as  a 
narrow  strip  of  property  is  of  little  value  to  the  owner  and  is 
difficult  to  sell  at  the  conclusion  of  logging  operations.  The 
more  frequent  practice  is  to  lease^  land  for  right-of-way  for  a 
period  sufficient  to  permit  the  removal  of  timber.  Such  leases 
can  usually  be  secured  on  terms  satisfactory  to  all  parties, 
although  exorbitant  rental  is  sometimes  demanded,  where  the 
topography  compels  the  location  of  the  road  within  restricted 
limits,  such  as  in  a  narrow  valley. 

Where  timber  rights  are  purchased  without  the  fee  to  the  land, 
the  contract  of  sale  should  specify  that  the  purchaser  has  the 
right  to  construct  such  roads  as  are  necessary  to  secure  the 
timber.  Even  if  such  a  stipulation  is  not  made,  some  courts- 
have  ruled  that  a  sale,  or  grant  of  standing  trees  implies  a  right 
of  access  and  the  use  of  the  land  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  the 
timber  and  afterwards  removing  the  logs.  Unless  some  specific 
date  is  mentioned  on  which  these  rights  terminate,  the  buyer  is 
entitled  to  a  "reasonable  time"  for  removal.  In  case  of  litiga- 
tion the  length  of  time  covered  by  the  contract  is  decided  by  the 
courts  after  consideration  of  the  specific  case. 

LOCATION 

The  location  of  the  main  line  of  a  logging  railroad  is  of  great 
importance,  for  the  engineer  must  preserve  a  proper  balance 
between  the  cost  of  construction  and  the  maintenance  and 
operating  charges.  He  must  choose  between  an  expensive  road- 
bed with  low  grades  and  easy  curves,  or  a  cheaper  roadbed  with 
increased  maintenance  and  operating  expenses. 

1  In  many  places  in  the  South  $50  is  considered  a  reasonable  fee  for  the  privilege 
of  crossing  a  "forty." 

-  See  a  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Tennessee.  Carson  vs.  Three  States 
Lumber  Company  (Tenn.),  69  Southwestern  Reporter,  320.     1902. 


252  LOGGING 

(i)  Roads  in  a  rolling  or  rough  region  should  enter  the  tract 
at  the  lowest  point  and  follow  natural  drainage,  because  it 
usually  affords  the  best  grade  out  of  the  region  and  the  operator 
can  bring  his  timber  to  the  main  line  on  a  down  grade.  Road- 
beds along  natural  drainage  should  be  placed  above  high -water 
mark  when  possible,  although  on  roads  which  are  to  be  used  only 
for  a  short  period,  it  may  be  cheaper  to  build  near  the  stream  and 
suffer  a  few  washouts  rather  than  incur  a  very  heavy  construc- 
tion expense. 

(2)  The  shortest  possible  route  is  usually  desirable,  but  it  is 
better  to  increase  the  length  of  line  if  heavy  cuts,  fills,  bridge 
and  trestle  construction  can  be  avoided. 

(3)  "Velocity"  grades  are  often  used  to  advantage  in  crossing 
"draws"  or  depressions  but  they  are  feasible  only  on  straight 
track,  for  it  is  extremely  dangerous  to  run  trains  at  high  speed 
on  a  curved  track  which  has  a  descending  grade.  In  addition 
to  their  influence  on  the  hauling  ability  of  a  locomotive,  steep 
pitches  are  a  disadvantage  on  a  road  because  the  track  tends 
to  work  towards  the  lower  levels  and  not  only  is  the  expense  of 
maintenance  greater  than  for  a  fairly  level  road  but  also  the 
danger  of  wrecks  is  increased. 

(4)  Where  logging  railroads  cross  ridges  or  cover  sharp 
changes  in  grade  in  a  short  distance,  "switch  backs"  are  usually 
preferable  to  doubling  back  with  a  curve  since  the  latter  method 
often  necessitates  a  heavier  construction  expense.  Switch  backs 
often  are  the  only  means  at  hand  for  securing  timber  from  eleva- 
tions above  or  below  the  main  line. 

(5)  Grades  should  not  exceed  3  per  cent  and  curves  should 
not  exceed  12  degrees  on  roads  that  are  to  be  used  for  several 
years  and  over  which  a  large  amount  of  timber  is  to  be  hauled, 
although  in  a  rough  region  these  figures  are  often  increased  in 
practice. 

Location  in  a  region  without  marked  topographical  relief,  such 
as  the  flat  pineries  or  the  cypress  swamps  of  the  South,  presents 
no  special  difficulties.  The  main  object  is  to  bring  the  railroad 
to  the  timber  by  the  shortest  and  cheapest  route.  The  con- 
struction cost  is  low  on  dry  lands  in  these  regions,  because  only 


FOREST   RAILROADS  253 

limited  quantities  of  material,  chiefly  earth,  mast  be  moved  to 
make  the  roadbed.  Where  swamps  are  crossed  piling  is  fre- 
quently used  and  numerous  bridges  or  trestles  may  be  required, 
but  even  here  the  cost  per  mile  is  less  than  the  average  in  a 
mountainous  region. 

In  the  flat  and  gently  rolling  regions  of  the  South  the  main 
lines  are  usually  located  by  the  woods  foreman,  although  in 
many  cases,  engineers  could  be  employed  to  advantage. 

In  a  rolling  or  rough  country,  especially,  in  the  West,  location 
presents  difficult  problems,  because  roads  must  be  confined 
chiefly  to  natural  drainage  and  often  the  only  means  of  access 
to  timber  is  over  a  route  requiring  heavy  cuts  and  fills  and 
expensive  bridge  and  trestle  construction.  The  location  of 
logging  railroads  in  a  rough  region  should  be  done  by  a  location 
engineer  who  is  an  expert  logger.  Good  railroad  engineers 
without  logging  experience,  are  usually  a  failure  at  logging  rail- 
road work  because  they  are  not  able  to  subordinate  some  of  their 
ideals  regarding  standard  railroad  construction  to  the  demands 
of  practical  logging. 

Some  companies  have  sufficient  work  to  furnish  continuous 
employment  for  logging  engineers  while  others  secure  their 
services  only  when  needed.  Competent  men  for  work  of  this 
character  can  be  secured  for  from  $175  to  $250  per  month. 

Spur  lines  are  located  with  less  care  than  the  main  lines  for 
they  are  shorter  and  of  cheaper  construction,  since  they  are  to 
be  used  only  for  a  short  period  and  a  limited  amount  of  timber 
is  to  come  out  over  them.  They  should  follow  natural  drainage 
in  order  to  provide  a  down-haul  for  animal  logging,  but  if  power 
skidders  are  employed  the  roads  may  be  placed  on  high  ground 
and  the  logs  dragged  up  grade,  as  it  is  often  cheaper  to  construct 
and  maintain  a  road  on  the  higher  ground,  the  skidding  machine 
will  bring  logs  up  grade  as  easily  as  down,  and  the  logs  do  not 
acquire  momentum  and  foul  the  cable,  or  catch  so  readily  behind 
stumps  or  debris. 

In  fairly  level  regions,  where  animals  are  used  for  logging, 
spurs  are  preferably  located  so  that  the  maximum  haul  from  any 
part  of  the  operation  will  not  exceed  one-fourth  mile,  except  for 


254  LOGGING 

small  isolated  tracts,  which  do  not  warrant  the  expense  of 
building  a  railroad  to  them.  Where  a  snaking  system  is  used 
and  the  aim  is  to  log  all  parts  of  the  tract  by  this  system,  spurs 
should  be  placed  approximately  parallel  to  each  other  and  1800 
or  2000  feet  apart,  for  the  maximum  efficient  radius  of  the  ma- 
chine does  not  exceed  1000  feet.  In  cypress  and  other  forests 
where  the  area  is  logged  by  the  cableway  system,  the  spurs  are 
placed  parallel  and  from  1200  to  1400  feet  apart.  In  mountain- 
ous sections,  spur  roads  chiefly  follow  secondary  drainage. 
On  the  Pacific  Coast  some  operators  build  their  spur  roads  to 
the  yarding  engines.  A  geared  locomotive  then  drags  the  logs 
over  the  ties  to  the  landing  or  the  logs  may  be  loaded  on  cars  at 
the  yarding  engine  and  transported  to  destination.  Where  spur 
construction  is  costly  the  logs  may  be  brought  to  the  main  line 
by  road  engines,  animals,  slides  or  flumes.  In  the  Appalachian 
region  spur  construction  is  limited,  and  railroads  are  confined  to 
the  larger  branches  of  the  streams. 

The  grades  and  curves  permissible  on  spurs  are  greater  than 
on  main  lines  because  a  slow  speed  is  maintained,  and  lighter 
motive  power  is  used.  For  the  sake  of  efficiency  and  safety  it 
is  always  desirable  to  keep  grades  and  curves  as  low  as  possible, 
although  short  spurs  may  have  grades  as  high  as  6  per  cent  for 
loaded  cars,  and  from  8  to  10  per  cent  for  empty  ones,  and  curves 
as  high  as  40  degrees. 

Geared  locomotives,  only,  are  suitable  for  excessive  grades  and 
curves  since  the  short  wheel  base  permits  the  locomotive  to 
make  sharp  turns,  and  because  of  the  increased  power  secured 
through  the  gearing;  on  steep  grades  and  sharp  curves  however, 
a  geared  locomotive  can  haul  only  a  few  cars  at  one  time. 

Methods  of  Location.  —  Topographic  maps  are  now  considered 
an  essential  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  modern  logger  operating 
in  a  rough  region.  These  often  are  prepared  in  connection  with 
the  timber  cruise,  but  if  they  are  not  available  previous  to  rail- 
road location,  engineers  prepare  them,  using  contour  intervals  of 
20  or  50  feet  depending  on  the  accuracy  required  and  the  rough- 
ness of  the  country.  A  successful  engineer  operating  in  Washing- 
ton, on  his  reconnaissance  survey  preliminary  to  location,  runs 


FOREST   RAILROADS  255 

out  and  blazes  all  section  lines;  determines  distances  by  pacing, 
which  are  checked  on  quarter-section  and  section  corners;  and 
secures  elevations  by  means  of  an  aneroid  barometer.  A  rough 
topographic  map  is  prepared  from  this  data  and  furnishes  a  basis 
for  the  preliminary  location. 

Having  roughly  determined  the  route  of  the  road,  the  pre- 
liminary location  follows.  The  engineer  is  aided  in  this  work  by 
one  or  two  rod  men  and  two  or  more  axmen,  depending  on  the 
density  of  brush  along  the  route.  Where  an  expensive  road  is  to 
be  built,  engineers  recommend  the  use  of  a  transit  in  preliminary 
work,  because  of  the  accuracy  demanded  in  final  results.  Some 
use  a  railroad  compass  and  a  hand  level  of  the  Abney  type  both 
for  main  lines  and  spurs.  In  a  fairly  level  country  the  railroad 
compass  will  meet  all  needs,  in  fact  some  find  a  small  staff  com- 
pass ample. 

The  engineer  having  traveled  over  the  proposed  route  one  or 
more  times  and  knowing  the  problems  to  be  solved,  locates  a  line 
of  tangents  and  sets  stakes  marked  with  the  station  number,  at 
100-foot  intervals  along  the  right-of-way.  As  the  line  pro- 
gresses, the  engineer,  by  trial,  selects  the  points  which  will  keep 
his  grades  and  curves  within  the  limits  set  for  the  line.  Several 
trial  lines  may  be  necessary  to  secure  a  satisfactory  grade. 

On  spur  lines  in  a  rough  region  and  on  main  lines  in  a  fairly 
level  region,  the  preliminary  survey  is  dispensed  with.  A  rail- 
road compass  or  a  box  compass  is  often  used  in  lieu  of  a  transit, 
and  in*  many  sections  the  woods'  foreman  or  superintendent 
replaces  the  engineer. 

A  common  method  in  the  pineries  of  the  South  is  to  locate  a 
line  of  tangents  by  the  use  of  three  6-foot  straight  pickets,  along 
which  the  locator  sights,  placing  center  stakes  at  100- foot 
intervals. 

The  final  location  of  the  line  of  tangents  is  followed  by  the 
location  of  curves.  Loggers  have  a  number  of  rule-of-thumb 
methods  of  locating  curves,  which,  although  inaccurate,  are 
satisfactory  for  railroads  where  a  high  degree  of  engineering 
ability  is  not  demanded.  Many  who  use  rule-of-thumb  methods 
determine  the  deflection  angle  by  eye  and  lay  off  trial  curves, 


256  LOGGING 

persisting  until  they  find  one  which  will  connect  their  two 
tangents.  Three  methods  are  in  general  use  by  logging  engineers 
for  laying  out  curves  on  logging  roads;  namely,  the  tangent- 
offset  method,  by  distance  scaled  from  a  map,  and  by  the  use 
of  a  transit  or  compass.^ 

On  main  line  work  in  a  rough  region,  the  location  survey  is 
followed  by  a  line  of  levels  which  furnishes  data  for  a  profile  map 
on  which  the  ''elevation  of  grade "  is  shown.  This  is  preliminary 
to  making  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  moving  earth  and  rock. 
The  cubic  yardage  is  computed  from  cross  sections-  taken  along 
the  proposed  grade  at  each  station  on  level  or  fairly  level  ground, 
and  at  every  point  where  there  is  a  decided  change  in  the  con- 
figuration of  the  surface. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO    CHAPTER    XVII 

Ellis,  L.  R.:  Necessity  for  an  Accurate  Topographic  ]\Iap  in  Logging  Opera- 
tions.    Timberman,  July,  191 1,  pp.  49-53. 

Henry,  H.  P.:  Advantages  of  Topographic  Surveys  and  Logg.ng  Plans.  The 
Timberman,  August,  191 2,  pp.  65-67. 

Peed,  W.  W.:  Necessity  for  the  Logging  Engineer  in  Modern  Logging  Opera- 
tions.    The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  47-49. 

Rankin,  R.  L.:  Practical  Topographical  Surveys  for  Building  Logging  Roads. 
The  Timberman,  March,  1912,  p.  27. 

Van  Orsdel,  John  P.:  Topographic  Survey  and  its  Economic  Value  in  Logging 
Operations.     The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  p.  64. 

:    How  to  Obtain  the  Highest  Practical  Efficiency  in  Woods 

Operations.     The  Timberman,  September,  1910.  pp.  48-51. 

Wood,  A.  B.:  Accurate  Topographic  Map  is  a  Good  Investment  in  Logging 
Operations.     The  Timberman,  August,  191 2,  p.  67. 

^  See  "Plane  Surveying,"  by  John  Clayton  Tracy.  John  Wiley  and  Sons, 
New  York,  1908.     pp.  204-208. 

2  See  "Earthwork  and  its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  Gillette.  McGraw-Hill  Book  Co., 
New  York,  1912.  pp.  175-182.  "Highway  Construction,"  by  Austin  T.  Byrne. 
John  Wiley  and  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1902.  pp.  447-454.  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Sur- 
veying," by  J.  B.  Johnson.    John  Wiley  and  Sons,  New  York,  1901.     pp.  438-471. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION 

The  construction  of  the  roadbed  for  a  logging  railroad  usually 
precedes  logging  by  a  few  weeks,  although  it  may  be  several 
months  or  a  year  in  advance.  An  advantage  of  the  latter  is 
that  the  roadbed  has  an  opportunity  to  settle  before  the  steel  is 
laid  and  the  road  operated.  This  gives  a  more  stable  track  and 
one  that  is  cheaper  to  maintain.  In  regions  subject  to  heavy 
rainfall  and  with  earth  that  washes  badly,  this  practice  is  not 
desirable  since  the  roadbed  will  suffer  through  erosion. 

CLEARING    THE    RIGHT-OF-WAY 

Previous  to  starting  the  grading  of  the  right-of-way,  it  is 
necessary  to  cut  and  remove  the  standing  timber,  brush  and 
stumps  which  will  interfere  with  the  roadbed.  This  work  is  often 
done  by  contract  at  a  stated  price  per  acre,  with  or  without  an 
additional  payment  for  all  merchantable  saw  logs  cut. 

Main  line  rights-of-way  are  generally  cut  loo  feet  wide  in  order 
to  prevent  the  track  from  being  covered  with  "  down  timber" 
during  wind  storms.  On  spur  roads  the  right-of-way  is  usually 
from  1 8  to  50  feet  wide.  In  the  South,  however,  rights-of-way  for 
spurs  are  often  made  120  feet  wide  in  order  to  provide  skidway 
space  on  each  side  of  the  track.  The  right-of-way  crew  fells 
the  timber,  removes  the  stumps  from  the  roadbed,  if  necessary, 
and  cuts  the  brush  from  the  skidway  site.  The  timber  adjacent 
to  the  roadbed  is  not  felled  until  the  surroimding  area  is  logged, 
because  insects  seriously  damage  felled  timber  that  remains  in 
the  forest  during  the  warm  months.  Where  the  skidway  sites 
are  cleared  off  by  the  logging  crew  the  cost  is  usually  greater 
than  by  the  method  above  mentioned  both  because  of  the 
enforced  idleness  of  the  teams  and  the  low  efficiency  of  team- 

257 


258  LOGGING 

sters  when  performing  swamping  work  which  is  usually  distaste- 
ful to  them. 

The  timber  cut  from  a  right-of-way  may  be  used  for  saw 
logs,  culverts,  trestles,  bridges,  corduroy  and  for  filling  in  low 
places  to  reduce  the  amount  of  earth  required  for  fills.  Material 
of  merchantable  value  both  from  green  and  "  dead-and-down " 
timber  is  cut  into  saw  logs  and  either  scattered  or  piled  on  skid- 
ways  along  the  right-of-way  outside  of  the  grade  line. 

On  main  lines  and  spurs  all  stumps  should  be  removed  from 
the  roadbed  unless  they  are  on  the  site  of  a  proposed  fill  and  will 
be  covered  with  at  least  one  foot  of  earth;  or  so  located  that 
they  will  not  furnish  a  bearing  for  any  part  of  the  track;  or  the 
character  of  the  ground  is  such  that  the  removal  of  the  stump 
during  wet  weather  will  cause  a  soft  spot  which  cannot  be  kept 
up  during  the  rainy  period. 

Where  the  stumps  are  to  be  covered  with  earth  they  are  cut 
off  near  the  ground.  Those  on  the  right-of-way  outside  of  the 
roadbed  may  be  cut  at  any  convenient  height.  The  removal  of 
stumps  is  usually  accomplished  by  blasting  with  powder  or 
dynamite,  by  grubbing  or  by  burning  them  out.  The  cost  for 
the  former  ranges  from  30  cents  to  several  dollars  per  stump, 
and  for  grubbing  from  6  to  8  cents  for  each  inch  of  diameter. 
Small  and  medium-sized  trees  can  best  be  removed  by  cutting 
all  roots  from  3  to  4  feet  from  the  base  of  the  tree  and  allow- 
ing the  weight  of  the  crown  and  bole  to  aid  in  pulling  out  the 
stump. 

In  the  South  clearing  the  main  line  right-of-way,  including 
the  grubbing  of  stumps  on  the  roadbed,  can  usually  be  done 
by  contract  for  $25  per  acre.  During  1910  a  contract  was  let 
in  northern  Louisiana  for  a  100-foot  right-of-way,  at  a  price 
of  $100  per  mile.  This  included  the  felling  of  all  timber  and 
the  cutting  off  at  the  ground  of  all  stumps  on  the  roadbed, 
but  not  their  removal.  The  contractor  received  in  addition,  50 
cents  per  thousand  feet  for  all  merchantable  material  cut  into 
saw  logs.  A  40-foot  right-of-way  in  this  region  can  usually  be 
cleared  and  stumps  on  the  roadbed  removed  for  $90  per  mile, 
and  a  lOO-foot  right-of-way  for  $150  per  mile. 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION  259 

In  the  Pacific  Northwest,  clearing  a  50-foot  right-of-way  costs 
from  $2  to  $12  per  100  feet,  depending  on  the  amount  of  brush, 
down  timber  and  standing  timber  on  the  site  and  the  difficulties 
of  moving  it.  The  average  should  not  exceed  $500  per  mile 
if  the  stumps  are  blasted  and  the  timber  is  dragged  from  the 
right-of-way  by  a  yarding  engine. 

Following  the  felling  of  the  timber  and  the  removal  of  stumps 
comes  the  construction  of  the  roadbed.  This  covers  the  move- 
ment of  earth  and  rock  for  cuts  and  fills,  the  construction  of 
trestles,  culverts,  cribbing  and  other  timber  structures. 

FILLS    AND    CUTS 

Fills  on  a  logging  road  should  be  12  or  14  feet  wide  on  top  for 
a  standard-gauge  road  and  10  or  12  feet  wide  for  a  narrow-gauge. 
The  standard  slope  for  an  earthwork  fill  is  i^  :  i.^  When  the 
fill  is  made  from  rock,  a  i  :  i  slope  may  be  ample. 

In  cuts  the  roadbed  must  be  wide  enough  to  give  room  for  a 
drainage  ditch  on  either  side.  These  will  require  about  3  addi- 
tional feet  each,  and  the  cut  should  be  about  16  feet  at  the 
base.  In  earth  cuts  the  ratio  of  slope  is  i|  :  i  and  in  solid  rock 
cuts  the  walls  are  perpendicular  or  nearly  so. 

Main  lines  are  graded  up  carefully,  and  suitable  ditches  main- 
tained. Even  on  level  sections  it  is  desirable  to  elevate  the 
track  and  put  in  ditches,  because  of  the  cheaper  cost  of  main- 
tenance during  wet  weather. 

A  form  of  main  line  spur  track  used  in  southern  Arkansas 
is  shown  in  Fig.  75,  a. 

The  earth  from  the  ditches  is  sufficient  for  ballasting  the  ties 
and   the   grade   costs   but  little   except  for   the   ditches.     The 

'  The  angle  of  repose  or  slope  that  a  face  of  earth  makes  with  the  horizontal 
when  not  subjected  to  the  elements  is  as  follows: 

Compact  earth 50  degrees   or  |  to  i 

Clay,  well  drained 45  degrees   or  i  to  i 

Gravel 40  degrees  or  i  j  to  i 

Dry  sand 38  degrees  or  i|  to  i 

Wet  sand 22  degrees  or  2^  to  i 

Vegetable  earth  (loam) 28  degrees  or  if  to  i 

Wet  clay i^  degrees  or  3  to  i 

V 


26o 


LOGGING 


average  cost  per'ioo  feet  ranges  from  $6  to  $7  for  the  type 
shown  in  Fig.  75,^7,  and  from  $3  to  $4  for  the  one  shown  in 

Fig.  75,^- 

On  spurs  a  minimum  of  till  and  cut  work  is  done  and  ditching 
is  not  resorted  to  unless  absolutely  necessary. 

Where  fills  of  2  or  more  feet  are  to  be  made  on  spur  roads,  it 
is  a  common  practice  to  fill  the  bed  of  the  grade  with  logs,  if 
nonmerchantable  timber  is  close  at  hand  and  to  place  a  cover  of 
earth  over  them  to  give  a  bearing  for  the  ties.     This  practice 


Fig.  75.  —  Two  Methods  of  constructing  a  Grade  for  a  Logging  Railroad,  a, 
main  line  spur,  b,  secondary  spur.  The  ditch  is  cut  to  the  dotted  line  when 
the  track  is  surfaced. 


cheapens  the  cost  of  construction,  especially  when  earth  for  a 
fill  must  be  taken  from  a  "borrow"  pit.  This  type  of  roadbed 
will  last  for  at  least  one  year. 

The  movement  of  earth  and  rock  in  the  construction  of  cuts 
and  fills  is  most  frequently  done  by  contract.  The  unit  on  which 
payment  is  based  is  the  cubic  yard,  the  material  being  measured 
"in  place,"  that  is,  in  the  natural  bank  before  it  has  been  dis- 
turbed. It  is  customary  to  classify  the  material  to  be  moved 
and  to  regulate  the  prices  accordingly.  The  classification  and 
quantity  of  material  moved  are  determined  by  the  supervising 
engineer. 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION  261 

The  following  standard  classification  is  in  extensive  use : 

(i)  Earth.  — Loam,  sand,  gravel  or  clay.  Material  that  can 
be  handled  with  a  pick  and  shovel,  or  that  can  be  plowed 
readily. 

(2)  Hardpan.  —  Very  dense  clays  and  gravels,  cemented  with 
iron  oxide.  Soft  shales  that  are  easily  worked  may  also  be 
included. 

(3)  Loose  Rock.  —  Shales  and  other  rock  that  can  be  quarried 
without  blasting,  although  blasting  may  be  resorted  to  occa- 
sionally. 

(4)  Solid  Rock.  —  Material   requiring  blasting   for   removal. 

The  contract  price  per  cubic  yard  for  the  removal  of  earth 
or  rock  usually  includes  excavating,  hauling,  and  placing  the 
material  in  a  fill  or  a  waste  pit.  It  is  not  customary  to  pay  for 
making  a  cut  and  also  to  pay  for  a  fill  made  from  the  same 
material;  in  other  words,  payment  for  a  given  cubic  yard  is 
made  but  once.  Grading  contracts  may  have  an  ''overhaul" 
clause  which  provides  that  for  all  earth  hauled  more  than  a 
specified  distance  ("free  haul"),  the  contractor  shall  be  paid 
a  stated  sum  per  cubic  yard  for  each  100  feet  of  overhaul.  On 
logging  operations  the  length  of  free  haul  ranges  from  100  to 
500  feet. 

The  price  paid  for  moving  material  varies  greatly  in  different 
regions  and  is  influenced  by  the  length  of  haul,  the  kind  of 
material  moved,  the  character  of  classification,  the  degree  of 
accuracy  used  in  actual  classification  and  the  season  of  the  year, 
the  cost  of  winter  work  being  about  25  per  cent  higher  than  that 
of  work  done  during  the  summer. 

The  following  prices  were  paid  on  logging  railroad  operations 
and  represent  general  contract  prices  on  work  of  this  character. 
The  average  work  on  logging  roads  except  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
usually  presents  no  special  problems  and  can  be  performed  with 
simple  equipment  which  does  not  require  a  heavy  financial 
outlay.  Loggers  are  able,  therefore,  to  contract  with  local  men 
on  favorable  terms. 


262 


LOGGING 


Class. 

Alabama. 

Louisi- 
ana. 

Texas 
and 

Arkan- 
sas. 

Washington. 

Con- 
tract 
price. 

Free 
haul. 

Bonus  for 
overhaul. 
Per  100  feet. 

Con- 
tract 
price. 1 

Con- 
tract 
price.i 

Contract 
price. 

Free 
haul. 

Bonus  for 

overhaul. 

Per  100  feet. 

Earth 

Hardpan. . .  . 
Loose  rock.. 
Solid  rock... 

Cents. 

25 

35 
65 

Feet. 
300 

300 
300 

Cents. 
0.05 

0.05 
0.05 

Cents. 
0.14 

Cents. 
0.16 

Cents. 
16-20 
25 
35-45 

75-1-25 

Feet. 
100 
100 
100 
100 

Cents. 
0.05 
0.05 
0.05 
0.05 

No  limit  to  free  haul,  but  it  was  not  great  in  any  case. 


MOVEMENT    OF    EARTH  ^ 

The  movement  of  earth  for  road  construction,  railroad  grades 
and  trails  may  be  performed  in  various  ways  among  which  the 
following  are  in  general  use : 

(i)  With  pick  and  shovel,  the  earth  being  loosened  by  the 
pick  and  then  thrown  directly  out  of  the  cut. 

(2)  Loosening  by  pick  or  plow  and  transport  on  wheel- 
barrows, two-wheeled  dump  carts  or  dump  wagons. 

(3)  Loosening  by  plow  or  by  dynamite  and  transport  on 
drag  scrapers,  wheel  scrapers  or  dump  cars  with  horse  draft. 

(4)  Steam  shovel  lift  and  transport  on  dump  cars  or  flat  cars. 

The  first  three  methods  are  employed  by  owners  of  compara- 
tively simple  and  inexpensive  outfits.     Steam  shovels  are  seldom 

1  Earth  of  various  kinds  increases  in  bulk  when  disturbed  for  removal,  as  shown 
in  the  following  table: 


Character  of  material. 


Increase  i 
bulk. 


Earth,  freshly  loosened 

Clean  sand  and  gravel 

Loam,  loamy    sand  and  gravel 

Dense  clay,  dense  mixtures  of  gravel  and  clay 
Unusually  dense  gravel  and  clay  banks 


Per  cent. 
14  to  50 
14  to  IS 
20 
33  to  50 


Shrinkage  in  volume  of  embankments  is  dependent  on  the  method  used  to  com- 
pact them.  Loose  earth  with  rainfall  as  the  only  compacting  element  will  be  about 
8  per  cent  above  normal  at  the  expiration  of  a  year.  Earth  compacted  with  two- 
wheeled  carts  or  scrapers  occupies  from  5  to  10  per  cent  less  space  than  it  did  "in 
place"  and  will  shrink  slightly  more  during  the  next  few  years. 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION 


263 


employed  except  where  a  large  amount  of  earth  is  to  be  moved 
and  where  a  log  loader  that  can  be  converted  into  a  steam 
shovel  is  available. 

Plowing.  —  Contractors  usually  assume  that  a  team  and  driver, 
with  a  helper  to  hold  the  plow  can  loosen  per  hour,  25  cubic  yards 
of  fairly  tough  clay;  35  cubic  yards  of  gravelly  loam;  or  50 
cubic  yards  of  loam.  A  pick-pointed  plow  drawn  by  four  or  six 
horses  and  with  two  men  riding  the  plow  beam,  is  required  for 
breaking  up  tough  clay  or  hardpan,  the  usual  rate  being  from  15 
to  20  cubic  yards  per  hour.  Thirty-five  cubic  yards  of  "average 
earth"  per  hour  is  considered  satisfactory  work.^ 

Pick  Work.  —  The  pick  is  used  only  for  light  work  and  in 
confined  places.  In  one  hour  a  man  will  loosen  from  1.6  to  2.3 
cubic  yards  of  earth,  from  0.7  to  i.i  cubic  yards  of  gravel,  or 
0.9  cubic  yards  of  hardpan.^ 

Picking  and  Shoveling.  —  Pick-loosened  earth  is  nearly  always 
handled  with  a  shovel.  This  method  of  moving  earth  is  of 
importance  in  forest  work  because  most  light  railroad  grades  are 
constructed  in  this  manner,  and  it  is  also  used  in  trail  building. 

The  following  table-  shows  the  average  amount  of  cubic 
yardage  picked  and  shoveled  by  one  man  per  hour. 


Hardpan  (clay  and  gravel) . 

Common  earth 

Hardpan 

Clay  (stiff) 

Clay 

Sand 

Sandy  soil 

Clayey  earth 

Clay,  fairly  tough 

Sandy  soil,  frozen 

Gravel  or  clay 

Earth 


Capacity  per 
man  per  hour. 


Cubic  yards. 
0.4 


Cost  per  cubic 
yard.i 


Cents. 

37* 

19-125 

I7i 
15 
12 
I9-I2i 
12 
17 


M.  Ancelin 
Cole 


Gillette 


Billings 
Hogdson 


Wages  15  cents  per  hour. 


^  The  data  on  output  are  taken  from  "  Earthwork  and  Its  Cost."  by  H.  P.  Gil- 
lette.    McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York,  191 2. 

2  From  "Earthwork  and  its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  Gillette.  McGraw-Hill  Book 
Company,  New  York,  1912.     P.  23. 


264 


LOGGING 


The  hourly  output  per  man  shoveling  average  soil  is  1.4  cubic 
yards,  but  this  may  be  increased  to  2  cubic  yards  under  efficient 
supervision. 

With  Dynamite.  —  A  logging  operator  in  Mississippi  describes^ 
a  method  of  making  cuts  in  gumbo  5  feet  or  less  in  depth  when 
the  earth  is  to  be  "wasted."  The  reported  cost  was  50  per  cent 
less  than  with  the  usual  methods  of  moving  earth. 

Holes  of  the  required  depth  and  20  inches  apart  were  made 
with  a  round,  sharpened  bar.  The  outside  row  of  holes  had  a 
degree  of  slant  that  would  produce  a  cut  with  sides  of  the  desired 
slope.  After  covering  the  site  of  the  proposed  cut  with  holes, 
they  were  loaded  with  60  per  cent  dynamite.  The  center  holes 
were  loaded  heavier  than  the  others  and  were  primed  for  electric 
firing.  The  explosion  of  the  central  charges  fired  the  others. 
The  length  of  cut  blasted  at  one  time  did  not  exceed  200  feet. 
A  large  amount  of  the  earth  was  thrown  entirely  out  of  the  cut 
and  the  remainder  was  handled  readily  with  a  drag  scraper.  In 
tight  wet  earth  one  ton  of  60  per  cent  dynamite  will  loosen  earth 
for  1600  hnear  feet,  where  the  maximum  cut  is  5  feet. 

Wheelbarrows.  —  Barrows  are  not  profitable  for  moving  earth 
except  on  short  hauls,  for  stony  soil,  and  in  places  unfavorable 
for  the  use  of  horses.  The  average  load  on  level  runs  is  approxi- 
mately 250  pounds  or  y^  of  a  cubic  yard  of  earth,  and  on  fairly 
steep  grades  -^5-  of  a  cubic  yard,  "place  measure." 

The  average  amounts  moved,  per  barrow,  on  a  level  in  ten 
hours  and  the  cost  per  cubic  yard  for  picking,  shoveling  and 
moving,  when  wages  are  15  cents  per  hour,  are  as  follows:^ 


Distance. 

Quantity. 

Cost  per  cubic 
yard. 

Feet. 

Cubic  yards. 

Cents. 

100 

IO-5 

22.50 

75 

II. I 

21  .  25 

50 

II. 8 

20.00 

-5 

12.5 

18.75 

1  See  American  Lumberman,  Chicago,  Illinois,  July  15,  191 1,  p.  50. 

2  The  figures  on  the  amount  of  work  performed  and  costs  are  based  on  data 
contained  in  "Earthwork  and  its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  Gillette.  McGraw-Hill  Book 
Company,  New  York,  19 12. 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION 


265 


Two-wheeled  Dump  Carls.  —  These  are  used  for  transporting 
material  for  distances  varying  from  75  to  500  feet,  and  are 
especially  serviceable  on  short  hauls  and  in  narrow  cuts. 

The  average  load  of  dump  carts  on  level  roads  is  0.37  cubic 
yards,  and  on  steep  ascents  0.25  cubic  yards,  ''place  measure." 

On  short  hauls  one  driver  attends  two  carts,  leading  one  to 
the  dump  while  the  other  is  being  loaded.  On  long  hauls  he 
may  handle  two  carts  by  taking  both  at  one  time.  The  carts 
are  loaded  at  the  pit  by  shovelmen. 

When  wages  are  15  cents,  and  horse  hire  10  cents  per  hour 
the  average  day's  work  on  level  ground  for  a  one-horse  cart  of 
\  cubic  yard  capacity,  and  the  cost  per  cubic  yard  for  plowing, 
shoveling  and  hauling  average  earth  are  as  follows :  ^ 


Distance. 

Quantity. 

Cost  per  cubic 
yard. 

Feet. 
100 
200 
300 
400 

Cubic  yards. 
40.0 
33-3 
28. S 
250 

Cents. 
20.25 
21.50 

22.75 
24.00 

Dump  Wagons. — Where  a  wagon  is  used,  a  fiat-bottom,  two- 
horse  type  is  preferred,  which  usually  has  the  following  capacity: 


Character  of  road. 

Capacity. 

Cubic  yards. 
0.8 
I.O 

1.6 

Poor  earth  road 

Good  hard  earth  road 

An  average  team  will  travel  20  miles  per  day  on  fairly  hard 
earth  roads,  that  is,  10  miles  loaded  and  10  miles  without  a 
load.  On  poor  roads  and  soft  ground  15  miles  is  the  maximum 
distance.  These  rates  of  travel  include  occasional  stops  for 
rests. 

When  wages  are  15  cents  and  horse  hire  10  cents  per  hour, 

^  The  figures  on  the  amount  of  work  performed  and  costs  are  based  on  data 
contained  in  "  Earthwork  and  its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  Gillette.  McGraw-Hill  Book 
Company,  New  York,  19 12. 


266 


LOGGING 


the  cost  per  cubic  yard,  and  the  average  amounts  of  earth  moved 
daily  are  as  follows :  ^ 


Distance. 

Quantity. 

Cost  per  cubic 
yard. 

Feet. 

Cubic  yards. 

Cents. 

300 

75 

20.1 

400 

20 

8 

500 

21 

5 

600 

22 

2 

800 

50 

23 

6 

1000 

34 

25 

0 

2000 

26 

32 

0 

3000 

39 

0 

4000 

'.'. 

46 

0 

5000 

53-0 

Drag  Scrapers.  —  A  drag  scraper  is  a  steel  scoop  used  for 
moving  earth  for  short  distances.  It  is  the  preferable  form  for 
stony  ground  and  for  soils  filled  with  roots.  It  is  drawn  by  two 
horses. 

The  No.  2  scraper,  weighing  about  100  pounds,  is  the  one 
commonly  used,  and  costs  from  $10  to  $15.  Its  actual  capacity, 
"place  measure,"  is  yo  of  a  cubic  yard  of  tough  clay;  i  cubic 
yard  of  gravel;  or  |  cubic  yard  of  loam. 

Drag  scrapers  work  in  units  of  three  on  short  hauls,  the  teams 
traveling  about  50  feet  apart  in  an  ellipse.  They  are  loaded 
by  an  extra  man  as  they  pass  the  pit  and  are  dumped  by  the 
teamsters. 

On  a  50-foot  haul  the  average  ten-hour  output  for  a  drag 
scraper  is  62  cubic  yards  of  earth  and  gravel,  and  40  cubic  yards 
of  stiff  clay.  The  cost  per  cubic  yard  of  handling  average  earth 
is  approximately  9  cents  for  a  50-foot,  and  10  cents  for  a  100-foot, 
haul.^  Earth  for  scraper  work  is  loosened  with  a  plow  or  by 
dynamite. 

Wheel  Scrapers.  —  The  wheel  scraper  consists  of  a  steel  scoop 
hung  low  between  two  wheels.  The  following  sizes  are  in  com- 
mon use: 

^  The  figures  on  the  amount  of  work  performed  and  costs  are  based  on  data 
contained  in  "  Earthwork  and  its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  Gillette.  McGraw-Hill  Book 
Company,  New  York,  191 2. 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION 


267 


Number  i  wheelers  are  used  for  short  hauls  and  steep  rises 
and  should  replace  drag  scrapers  under  these  conditions  except 
where  the  soil  is  rocky  or  full  of  roots.  Snatch  teams  are  re- 
quired for  loading  No.  2  and  larger  scrapers,  and  even  then  it  is 
impossible  to  fill  the  bowl  in  tough  clay.  Shovels  must  be  used 
for  this  purpose. 


Weight. 

Actual  capacity', 
"  place  measure." 

No.  I 

Pounds. 
340  to  450 
475  to  500 

625  to  800 

Cubic  yards. 

1 

i 

No.  2 

No.  2I 

N0.3 

When  the  bowl  is  level  full  of  earth. 


When  wages  are  15  cents  and  horse  hire  10  cents  per  hour  the 
cost  per  cubic  yard  and  the  amount  of  earth  moved  daily  with  a 
No.  I  scraper  is  approximately  as  follows:^ 


Distance. 

Quantity. 

Cost  per  cubic 
yard. 

Feet. 
100 
200 
300 
400 
600 

Cubic  yards. 
48.0 
340 
26.6 
22.0 
16.0 

Cents. 

8.75 
II  .50 

14- 25 
17  .00 
22.50 

Cars  with  Animal  Draft. — Horse-drawn  dump  cars,  ranging 
in  capacity  from  i  to  3  cubic  yards,  may  be  advantageously 
employed  where  large  quantities  of  earth  are  to  be  moved  for  a 
distance  of  several  hundred  feet.  They  are  generally  run  on 
16  or  20-pound  steel  rails,  with  6  by  6-inch  by  5-foot  unballasted 
ties  spaced  about  4  feet,  center  to  center.  The  cost  of  laying 
such  a  track  averages  $100  per  mile,  exclusive  of  the  value  of 
the  material. 

A  dump  car  with  a  capacity  of  2  cubic  yards  weighs  about 

1  The  figures  on  the  amount  of  work  performed  and  costs  are  based  on  data 
contained  in  "  Earthwork  and  its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  Gillette.  McGraw-Hill  Book 
Company,  New  York,  191 2. 


268 


LOGGING 


one  ton  and  holds  about  5400  pounds  of  earth.  A  horse  can 
pull  a  loaded  car  on  a  level  all  day,  and  can  go  up  4  per  cent 
grades  occasionally,  if  frequent  rests  are  given.  The  hauling 
ability  of  heavy  horses  pulling  cars  up  different  grades  is  ap- 
proximately as  follows: 


Grade. 

One  horse. 

Two  horses. 

Level 

Cubic  yards. 
2.00 
1 .  10 
0.64 
0.37 
0.18 

Cubic  yards. 

5° 

30 

2  .0 

1.5 

0.75  to  I  .  10 

1  per  cent 

2  per  cent 

3  per  cent 

4  per  cent 

When  wages  are  15  cents  and  horse  hire  10  cents  per  hour  a 
2-cubic-yard  dump  car  drawn  by  one  horse  will  move  approxi- 
mately the  following  yardage  daily: 


Distance. 

Quantity. 

Cost  per  cubic 
yard. 

Feet. 
1000 
2000 
3000 
4000 

Cubic  yards. 
85  to  90 
60  to  65 
35  to  40 
20  to  25 

Cents. 
0.17 
0.18 
0.  19 
0.  20 

The  cars  are  loaded  by  shovelers,  each  handling  from  15  to 
18  cubic  yards  daily. ^ 

Steam  Shovels.  —  Steam  shovels  are  occasionally  used  on 
logging  railroad  work  where  large  cuts  are  to  be  made  or  heavy 
ditching  work  done.  "American"  log  loaders  are  offered  on  the 
market  with  a  steam  shovel  attachment  so  that  the  loader  can  be 
converted  into  a  shovel  when  desired.  The  dipper  used  has  a 
capacity  of  approximately  ^e  of  ^  cubic  yard,  and  under  favor- 
able circumstances  from  50  to  60  cubic  yards  per  hour  can  be 
moved.  Regular  steam  shovel  work  costs  from  9  cents  per  cubic 
yard  upward. 

^  The  figures  on  the  amount  of  work  performed  and  costs  are  based  on  data 
contained  in  "Earthwork  and  its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  Gillette.  McGraw-Hill  Book 
Company.     New  York,  1912. 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION  269 

ROCK    EXCAVATION 

Previous  to  excavation  rock  is  broken  by  an  explosive  into 
fragments  that  can  be  handled  readily. 

It  is  transported  chiefly  in  carts,  wagons  and  cars,  although 
it  may  be  moved  for  short  distances  on  wheelbarrows  or  thrown 
out  by  hand  in  shallow  cuts. 

A  cubic  yard,  place  measure,  of  rock  increases  from  60  to 
80  per  cent  when  broken  up.  On  an  average  only  60  per  cent 
as  much  yardage  of  rock  can  be  hauled  as  of  earth. 

Payment  for  the  removal  of  rock  which  is  classified  as  "loose 
rock"  and  "solid  rock"  is  on  the  basis  of  the  cubic  yard,  "in 
place." 

A.    BLASTING 

The  holes  in  which  charges  are  placed  are  usually  bored  with 
hand  drills.  The  diameter  and  spacing  of  holes  depend  upon  the 
kind  of  explosive  used,  the  character  of  the  rock  and  the  method 
of  handling  it.  As  a  rule,  the  holes  are  spaced  a  distance  apart 
equal  to  their  depth,  although  in  hard  rock  they  are  often  placed 
closer  together.  Close  spacing  increases  the  amount  of  drill 
work  required  and  the  quantity  of  explosive  used,  although  it 
is  often  more  economical  because  of  the  smaller  size  of  material, 
which  makes  handling  cheaper. 

Drilling.  —  Hand  drilling  is  preferred  for  logging  work  because 
of  the  limited  amount  of  rock  moved  and  the  difiticulties  of  trans- 
porting drilling  machinery  and  equipment  to  the  site  of  the  work. 

There  are  three  forms  of  drills  used  for  hand  work;  namely, 
the  "churn  drill,"  the  "jumper  drill"  and  the  "hand  drill." 

Churn  Drill.  — ■  This  is  the  most  economical  form  of  drill  for 
holes  up  to  30  feet  in  depth  and  from  i^  to  2^  inches  in  diameter. 

The  drill  consists  of  a  i\-  or  i|-inch  round  iron  bar  of  the 
required  length,  on  one  end  of  which  is  welded  a  steel  chisel  bit 
from  30  to  100  per  cent  wider  than  the  diameter  of  the  rod. 
Several  rods  of  different  lengths  are  required  for  drilling  a  deep 
hole. 

The  drill  is  operated  by  raising  it  from  18  to  24  inches  and 
allowing  it  to  drop,  the  weight  of  the  drill  furnishing  the  power. 


270 


LOGGING 


One  man  can  operate  a  drill  for  holes  3  feet  or  under  in  depth,  two 
men  for  those  of  medium  depth  and  three  or  four  men  for  the 
deepest  holes. 

Trautwine  gives  the  following  as  an  average  ten  hours'  work 
for  a  churn  drill: 


Character  of  rock. 


Hard  gneiss,  granite  or  silicious  limestone 

Tough  compact  hornblende 

Solid  quartz 

Ordinary  limestone 

Sandstone 


Feet. 

7  to  8 
5  to  7 
3  to    5 

8  to    9 

9  to  10 


Jumper  Drill.  —  These  are  shorter  than  churn  drills  and  are 
operated  by  two  or  more  men,  one  of  whom  sitting  down  holds  the 
drill  and  revolves  it  about  |  of  a  revolution  after  each  stroke, 
while  the  other  men  strike  the  drill  head  with  8-  or  12-pound 
sledge  hammers. 

The  drill  rods  are  of  |-inch  octagon  steel  and  the  bits  are  i^ 
or  i|  inches  wide.  The  maximum  depth  for  efficient  work  with 
a  three-man  jumper  drill  ranges  between  6  and  8  feet. 

Since  it  can  be  held  on  the  exact  spot,  this  drill  can  be  used 
for  smaller  holes  than  a  churn  drill.  It  is  also  best  for  con- 
glomerate rock,  because  it  is  not  so  easily  deflected  by  pebbles. 

The  amount  of  work  performed  in  ten  hours  by  three  men,  one 
holder  and  two  strikers,  using  a  jumper  is  approximately  as  fol- 
lows for  6-foot  holes  :^ 


Character  of  rock. 


Granite 

Trap  (basalt). 
Limestone.  .  .  . 


Hand  Drill.  —  The  hand  drilling  method  is  similar  to  jump 
drilling,  except  that  the  operator  sitting  down  holds  the  drill  with 

1  From  "Handbook  of  Cost  Data,"  by  H.  B.  Gillette.     Myron  C.  Clark  Pub- 
lishing Co.,  Chicago,  III.,  19 lo.     P.  185. 


RAILROAD   CONSTRUCTION  271 

one  hand  and  strikes  the  drill  with  a  2-  or  4|-pound  hammer  held 
in  the  other  hand.  These  are  used  only  for  holes  of  small  diam- 
eter, 3  feet  or  less  in  depth.  This  drill  may  be  used  for  hori- 
zontal or  inclined  bores. 

Hand  drill  rods  are  made  of  octagon  steel  and  range  in  size 
from  f  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  with  a  f-  or  i-inch  bit,  up  to  a 
|-inch  rod  with  a  i|-inch  bit.  A  i-inch  drill  rod  is  the  maximum 
size  practicable.  Chisel-shaped  bits,  similar  to  those  for  jumper 
and  churn  drills,  are  used. 

B.     EXPLOSIVES^ 

Explosives  for  blasting  belong  to  two  general  classes: 

1.  High  explosives  which  require  for  explosion  an  inter- 
mediate agent,  such  as  a  fulminate  detonator. 

2.  Low  explosives  which  can  be  fired  by  direct  ignition. 
High  Explosives.  —  For  blasting  purposes  these  are  marketed 

in  the  form  of  dynamite,  giant  powder,  gelatine,  and  some  other 
similar  products.  The  more  powerful  forms  are  composed  of  a 
mixture  of  nitro-glycerine  and  some  absorbent,  such  as  sawdust 
and  wood  pulp,  while  the  lower  grades  contain  explosive  salts 
in  addition.  Nitro-glycerine  undergoes  no  change  when  com- 
bined with  the  absorbent,  the  latter  acting  only  as  a  cushion  and 
as  a  means  of  solidifying  the  liquid. 

High  explosives  are  made  of  varying  strengths  and  are  graded 
on  the  percentage  of  nitro-glycerine  they  contain.  The  standard 
grades  range  from  75  per  cent  down.  Those  most  frequently 
used  are  40  and  60  per  cent,  the  former  being  preferred  for  many 
classes  of  work. 

High-grade  dynamite  explodes  with  great  suddenness  and  will 
shatter  rocks  and  stumps  into  small  fragments.  It  is  especially 
suitable  for  very  hard  rock  or  where  small  drill  holes  are  necessary. 
Medium  grades  are  best  for  soft  rock  because  their  explosive 
force  is  not  so  violent  and  sudden,  and  the  tendency  is  to  heave 
up  large  masses  of  rock  rather  than  to  shatter  them  into  smaller 
fragments. 

^  The  author  is  indebted  to  publications  of  the  E.  I.  DuPont  de  Nemours  Co. 
for  many  facts  regarding  explosives. 


272  LOGGING 

Dynamite  which  is  rather  soft  resembles  brown  sugar.  It 
is  packed  in  paraffine- coated  paper  shells  or  cartridges,  the 
standard  size  being  i  j  by  8  inches  and  containing  one-half  pound. 
Other  sizes,  from  |-inch  to  2  inches  in  diameter  and  6  inches  and 
over  in  length  are  also  manufactured.  Dynamite  cartridges  are 
packed  in  sawdust  in  wooden  boxes  containing  25  or  50  pounds 
each. 

Dynamite  freezes  between  35  and  50  degrees  Fahrenheit  and 
when  frozen  must  be  thawed  before  use.  Thawing  kettles  which 
are  best  for  this  work  consist  of  a  double  galvanized  iron  bucket 
having  an  inner  water-tight  receptacle  for  dynamite  and  an  outer 
receptacle  for  warm  water  which  must  not  exceed  100  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  otherwise  the  nitro-glycerine  may  separate  from  the 
absorbent.  Cartridges  are  sometimes  spread  out  on  a  shelf  in  a 
warm  room  and  left  during  the  night  but  should  never  be  thawed 
in  an  oven,  near  a  fire  or  placed  against  a  stove  or  steam  pipe. 
A  few  cartridges  can  be  easily  thawed  out  by  placing  them  flat 
in  a  water-tight  box  and  burying  them  in  fresh  manure. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  dynamite  from  coming 
into  contact  with  moisture,  because  water  has  a  greater  affinity 
for  the  absorbent  than  has  nitro-glycerine,  and  the  latter  will  be 
driven  out;  on  low  grades  of  dynamite  the  salts  of  the  auxiliary 
explosives  are  also  expelled. 

Dynamite  with  a  high  percentage  of  nitro-glycerine  de- 
teriorates during  warm  weather,  when  stored  in  a  warm  place,  or 
if  kept  for  long  periods.  Chemical  decomposition  takes  place, 
liberating  nitrous  fumes  which  often  are  the  cause  of  violent 
explosions.  A  greenish  color  on  the  cartridges  is  a  certain  in- 
dication of  chemical  decomposition,  and  handling  dynamite  in 
such  condition  is  always  dangerous. 

Nitro-glycerine  from  the  cartridge  may  be  absorbed  through 
the  hands,  and  men  who  handle  d>Tiamite  are  subject  to  severe 
headaches.  This  may  be  obviated  partially  by  wearing  gloves 
which  should  be  thrown  away  as  soon  as  they  become  saturated. 

Loading  Holes.  —  The  charge  should  completely  fill  the  bore 
hole  because  explosives  exert  the  greatest  disruptive  force  when 
there  are  no  air  spaces  below  the  tamping. 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION  273 

In  loading  dry  holes  the  cartridge  case  is  cut  on  one  side,  and 
the  cartridge  lowered  into  the  hole  and  gently  pressed  until  it 
completely  fills  the  bore.  This  is  repeated  until  a  sufficient 
amount  of  explosive  has  been  placed.  When  the  hole  is  wet  the 
cartridge  case  should  not  be  cut. 

The  hole  is  now  ready  for  the  primer  and  for  tamping. 

Primers  and  Priming.  —  Most  forms  of  dynamite  are  exploded 
by  the  use  of  a  fulminate  detonator  or  cap,  which  is  ignited  either 
by  a  safety  fuse  or  an  electric  fuse.  The  former  is  used  for 
individual  charges  and  the  latter  where  many  are  to  be  fired 
simultaneously. 

Safety  Fuse  and  Caps.  —  There  are  several  grades  of  safety 
fuse  offered  on  the  market,  some  of  which  are  waterproofed  for 
submarine  work.  The  fuse  used  for  blasting  ordinarily  burns  at 
the  rate  of  2  or  3  feet  per  minute,  and  is  marketed  in  packages 
containing  two  coils,  each  50  feet  long. 

The  cap  consists  of  a  hollow  copper  cylinder  |  by  i|  inches  in 
size  which  is  closed  at  one  end.  It  is  partly  filled  with  from 
three  to  twelve  grains  of  fulminate  of  mercury.  The  open  end 
is  sealed  with  shellac,  collodion,  thin  copper  foil,  or  paper.  Caps 
deteriorate  very  rapidly  when  exposed  to  moisture.  Several 
grades  are  made,  but  for  general  use  a  No.  6  is  preferred. 

In  making  the  primer  for  an  ordinary  blast  a  piece  of  safety 
fuse  of  the  required  length  is  cut  off  and  one  end  inserted  into 
the  cap  until  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  filling.  The  fuse  is 
held  in  place  by  crimping  the  cap  |-inch  from  the  open  end. 
The  fuse  and  cap  are  then  ready  for  insertion  in  the  primer, 
which  consists  of  a  cartridge  of  dynamite  of  the  same  size  and 
quality  as  that  used  in  the  charge. 

There  are  two  methods  of  inserting  the  cap  into  the  primer. 
A  common  method  (Fig.  76,  a)  is  to  open  the  paper  at  the  end 
of  a  cartridge,  and,  with  a  sharpened  stick  about  the  size  of  a 
lead  pencil,  make  a  hole  |-inch  deep  in  the  dynamite.  The  cap, 
with  fuse  attached,  is  then  inserted  in  this  cavity  and  should 
project  |-inch  above  the  dynamite,  otherwise  the  sputtering  of 
the  fuse  may  ignite  the  dynamite  before  it  does  the  cap.  The 
cartridge  paper  is  then  tied  around  the  fuse  with  a  string,  care 


274 


LOGGING 


being  taken  not  to  pull  the  cap  out  of  the  primer.  If  the  car- 
tridges are  used  in  wet  places  soap  or  tallow  is  smeared  over 
the  safety  fuse  at  the  point  where  it  en- 
ters the  cartridge  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  moisture  into  the  blasting  cap. 

Some  persons  prefer  to  use  the  method 
I      of  attaching  caps  shown  in  Fig.   76,  b. 
1      A  hole  is  punched  in   the  side  of   the 
I      cartridge   with    a    sharp    wooden    stick 
c      and  the  fuse  attached  as  shown.     This 
Fig.  76.  — Method  of  placing  method  is  satisfactory  because  the  fuse 
Caps  in  the  Primer,   a,  and  comes  against  the  side  of  the  bore  and  is 
b  are  for  firing  with  safety,   ^^^  ..^^^  ^^  disturbed  by  the  tamping 
fuse,     c,  for  firing  with  an  •'  i  1,     ,   r 

electric  battery,    d,  shows  bar,  and  the  cap  cannot  be  pulled  from 
the  cap  ready  for  the  in-  the  primer  and  thus  cause  a  misfire, 
sertion  of  the  fuse,    e,  cap       pj-i^ers    are   placed    on    top    of    the 

with  fuse  inserted  and  the      ,  ,         •       i  i     ,  r 

cap  shell  crimped.  charge,  but  m  deep  holes,  manufacturers 

recommend  that  additional  blasting  caps 

without  fuse  be  placed  at  5-foot  intervals  throughout  the  charge. 

Electric  Fuse.  —  When  it  is  desired  to  fire  several  different 
charges  at  one  time  electric  fuses  are  used  in  connection  with  a 
battery.  They  consist  of  two  wires  inserted  in  a  cap  containing 
a  mixture  of  fulminate  of  mercury  and  potassium  nitrate  or 
chlorate.  The  open  end  of  the  cap  is  plugged  with  sulphur. 
The  fuses  are  adjusted  as  shown  in  Fig.  76,  c.  When  an  electric 
fuse  is  used  the  primer  is  often  placed  in  the  center  of  the  charge. 
The  practice  in  electric  firing  is  to  separate  the  two  wires  on  the 
fuse  and  connect  one  to  a  wire  on  a  charge  on  one  side  and  the 
other  to  one  on  a  charge  on  the  opposite  side.  The  entire  set 
is  connected  up  in  this  manner  leaving  one  free  wire  extending 
both  from  the  first  and  the  last  hole.  The  two  leading  wires,  250 
feet  or  more  in  length,  are  then  connected  to  the  above  wires  and 
carried  to  some  protected  point.  When  all  is  in  readiness  the 
leading  wires  are  attached  to  the  poles  of  the  battery  and  the 
charge  fired  by  an  electric  firing  machine. 

Tamping.  —  Tamping  should  always  be  done  with  a  wooden 
bar,  never  with  a  tool  having  any  metal  parts,  and  the  tamping 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION  275 

material  must  be  free  from  all  forms  of  grit,  and  of  such  a  nature 
that  it  will  pack  firmly.  The  most  satisfactory  is  moist  clay  or 
loam. 

After  the  charge  has  been  pressed  tightly  in  the  bore  a  paper 
wad  may  be  placed  over  the  primer  to  keep  it  dry  and  from  2 
to  3  inches  of  tamping  material  put  in  and  firmly,  but  gently, 
packed.  Two  to  3  inches  more  of  tamping  material  are  again 
added  and  thoroughly  tamped.  After  5  or  6  inches  of  earth 
have  been  placed  in  the  bore  the  tamping  can  be  carried  on 
without  fear  of  premature  explosion.  The  hole  should  be  filled 
to  the  surface  and  the  material  tightly  packed,  or  it  will  blow  out 
and  much  of  the  force  of  the  explosive  will  be  lost. 

Low  Explosives.  —  Low  explosives  belong  to  either  the  soda  or 
the  saltpeter  class  and  are  known  as  black  powder.  The  average 
contain  approximately  75  per  cent  of  nitrate  of  soda,  or  India 
saltpeter,  10  per  cent  of  sulphur,  and  15  per  cent  of  carbon. 
Dynamite  of  75  per  cent  strength  is  usually  rated  as  six  times 
stronger  than  average  black  powder.  Soda  powders  can  be  made 
cheaper  than  saltpeter  powders  but  are  more  absorbent  of 
moisture  and,  therefore,  deteriorate  quicker. 

Black  powders  are  especially  suited  for  loosening  hardpan, 
shale,  and  other  soft  or  rotten  rock  where  a  lifting  action  is 
desired.  It  is  much  slower  than  high-grade  dynamite  and  does 
not  shatter  the  rock  as  much.  It  is  also  used  in  redwood  opera- 
tions to  blast  open  logs  that  are  too  large  to  be  handled  otherwise. 

Black  powder  is  fired  by  a  safety  fuse,  by  a  safety  fuse  and  a 
cap  of  low  power,  or  by  an  electric  fuse.  In  loading  holes  the 
powder  may  be  placed  loose  or  in  cartridges.  When  the  holes 
open  downward  the  latter  form  is  the  only  method  possible. 

In  priming  holes  it  is  customary  to  place  the  safety  fuse  or 
safety  fuse  and  cap  at  the  top  of  the  charge  while  electric  fuses 
are  ordinarily  placed  in  the  center  of  the  charge. 

Moist  clay  is  the  most  satisfactory  tamping  material,  2  or  3 
inches  of  dry  earth  being  placed  over  the  powder  to  prevent  the 
upper  end  of  the  charge  from  becoming  moist. 

When  blasting  with  black  powder  the  holes  may  be  ''sprung" 
with  dynamite  before  the  powder  is  inserted,  in  order  that  a 


276  LOGGING 

larger  cavity  may  be  made  for  the  powder.  Dynamite  of  40 
per  cent  strength  is  used  for  "springing,"  about  2V  of  a  pound 
per  cubic  yard  being  fired  in  shale,  and  tV  of  a  pound  per  cubic 
yard  in  sandstone.  "Sprung"  holes  should  not  be  charged  until 
they  have  become  cool. 

The  amount  of  black  powder  required  per  cubic  yard  of 
material  to  be  blasted  is  governed  by  the  depth  of  hole,  character 
of  rock,  and  spacing  of  holes.  Authorities  on  the  use  of  black 
powder  do  not  attempt  to  give  any  rules  for  determining  the 
amount  of  charge.  Charges  of  i  pound  per  cubic  yard  have 
proved  successful  in  side  cuts  and  from  i|  to  3  pounds  per  cubic 
yard  in  through  cuts.^  The  amount  to  use  under  given  condi- 
tions can  be  determined  only  after  a  few  trial  shots. 

Black  powder  is  put  up  in  25-  or  50-pound  cans  and  costs  from 
6  to  9  cents  per  pound. 

STUMP    BLASTING 

The  removal  of  stumps  from  the  right-of-way  of  roads,  trails, 
logging  grades,  and  from  pond  and  building  sites  can  often  be 
accomplished  to  best  advantage  by  the  use  of  explosives.  Dyna- 
mite of  the  40  and  60  per  cent  grades  is  preferable  to  black 
powder  for  this  purpose. 

The  position  of  the  blast  with  reference  to  the  stump  should 
be  governed  by  the  size  of  stump,  character  of  root  system,  and 
kind  of  soil.  Charges  should  always  be  placed  immediately 
under  the  stump  but  not  in  it,  and  as  near  as  possible  to  its 
toughest  part. 

In  sandy  soil  stumps  with  a  shallow  root  system  require  more 
explosive  than  those  with  tap  roots. 

They  blast  easier  in  heavy  and  moist  soils  than  in  light  or 
dry  ones. 

For  blasting  yellow  pine  stumps  with  long  tap  roots  the  charge 
should  be  placed  near  the  tap  root  and  at  a  distance  under  ground 
at  least  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  stump.  Forty  per  cent 
dynamite  is  usually  preferred. 

1  See  "Handbook  of  Cost  Data,"  by  H.  B.  Gillette.  Myron  C.  Clark  Publish- 
ing Company,  Chicago,  111.,  1910.     P.  204. 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION  277 

Cypress  stumps  have  many  lateral  roots  and  since  they 
usually  grow  on  mucky  soil  they  are  difficult  to  blow  out.  A 
quick  powerful  explosive,  such  as  60  per  cent  dynamite,  is  recom- 
mended by  manufacturers.  The  common  practice  with  swamp 
species  is  to  place  a  §-pound  cartridge  under  each  large  lateral 
root,  and  4  or  5  pounds  under  the  center  of  the  stump.  The 
charge  is  then  fired  with  an  electric  blasting  machine. 

Stumps  with  defective  centers  often  split  apart  and  allow  the 
force  of  the  explosive  to  pass  upward  without  blowing  out  the 
roots.  This  can  be  obviated  by  placing  a  chain  around  the  top 
of  the  stump. 

Where  a  right-of-way  must  be  cleared  of  stumps,  it  is  easier 
to  blow  them  out  before  the  tree  is  cut  because  the  weight  of 
the  crown  helps  to  pull  out  the  roots. 

The  holes  in  which  the  explosive  is  placed  are  best  bored  by 
a  2-inch  auger  welded  to  a  5-foot  iron  rod  that  has  a  ring  on  the 
upper  end  through  which  a  round  stick  can  be  inserted  for  a 
handle. 

.  The  depth  of  the  charge  below  the  stump  should  be  governed 
largely  by  the  size  of  the  stump  itself.  Dynamite,  in  exploding, 
tends  to  exert  a  force  equally  in  all  directions.  When  placed 
under  a  stump  the  soil  below  the  charge  offers  greater  resistance 
than  the  soil  above  and  the  force  is  exerted  upward  in  the  form 
of  an  inverted  cone.  Consequently  the  deeper  the  charge  is 
placed  the  wider  the  cone  at  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

A  rule^  followed  with  success  in  Minnesota  was  to  place  the 
charge  at  least  i-foot  deep  for  all  stumps  i  foot  or  less  in  diam- 
eter, and  proportionally  deeper  as  the  diameter  increased. 

Holes  are  charged,  primed  and  tamped  in  a  manner  similar 
to  bore  holes  in  rock.  Enough  explosive  should  be  placed  under 
the  stump  to  remove  it  at  the  first  shot,  because  it  is  difficult 
to  make  an  effective  blast  in  loosened  dirt. 

One  thousand  stumps,  ranging  from  18  to  48  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  averaging  30  inches,  which  were  blasted  in  Minnesota 
required  from  one-half  to  eight,  40  per  cent  dynamite  cartridges, 
the  average  number  being  three  per  stump. 

1  See  Minnesota  Farmer's  Institute  Annual,  No.  21,  1908. 


278  LOGGING 

The  DuPont  Powder  Company  recommends,  in  general,  a 
charge  of  i^  pounds  of  20  per  cent  dynamite  for  each  foot  in 
diameter  of  stump,  up  to  4  feet;  above  this  diameter  2^  pounds 
per  foot  in  diameter. 

On  dry  ground  one  man  can  bore  holes,  load,  and  blow  out 
an  average  of  fifty  stumps  per  day,  if  they  are  not  widely  scat- 
tered. 

TIMBER    WORK 

The  construction  of  trestles,  culverts,  cribbing,  and  other 
timber  work  is  done  just  previous  to  track  laying. 

Trestles.  —  These  are  used  in  crossing  streams  and  depressions 
where  the  cost  of  a  fill  would  be  excessive.  They  are  cheaper 
to  build  than  heavy  fills  and  when  the  road  is  used  for  a  short 
time  only,  the  trestle  timber  can  be  taken  up  and  used  on  another 
line. 

They  are  built  in  two  types  known  as  pile  trestles  and  frame 
trestles,  and  are  made  in  sections,  called  bents,  which  are  spaced 
12  or  14  feet  apart. 

Pile  trestles  are  used  largely  in  stream  beds  and  swampy 
spots  where  good  foundations  for  framed  trestles  cannot  be 
secured.  Low  pile  trestle  bents  usually  consist  of  three  round 
piles  from  12  to  15  inches  in  diameter,  driven  in  a  row  across  the 
roadbed.  On  a  standard  gauge  road  one  pile  is  placed  in  the 
center  of  the  roadbed  and  the  outer  piles  are  placed  from  24 
to  28  inches  on  either  side  of  it.  On  medium  height  trestles 
for  standard-gauge  track  four  piles  are  used,  the  two  inner 
ones  being  spaced  3  feet  apart,  center  to  center,  and  the  outer 
piles  26  inches,  center  to  center,  on  either  side  of  the  middle 
ones. 

They  are  driven  with  a  pile  driver  to  bed  rock,  or  solid  bottom, 
and  are  sawed  off  at  the  required  height  above  ground.  A  10 
by  lo-inch,  a  12  by  12-inch,  or  a  15  by  15-inch  timber,  called 
a  "cap,"  is  drift  bolted  on  top  of  them  with  f  by  21-inch  drift 
bolts. 

The  bents  are  connected  by  stringers,  each  8  by  14  inches  or 
9  by  16  inches  in  size,  which  are  placed  at  right  angles  on  top  of 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION 


279 


28o  LOGGING 

the  caps  and  support  the  crossties.  Two  stringers  are  used  under 
each  rail.  They  are  spaced  2  inches  apart  with  washers,  and 
then  bolted  together.  They  may  also  be  drift-bolted  to  the  caps 
to  hold  them  in  position.  Sawed  ties,  6  by  8  inches  by  8  feet, 
are  placed  24  inches,  center  to  center,  on  top  of  the  stringers, 
and  are  often  sunk  about  ^  inch  into  them.  An  occasional  cross- 
tie  is  also  drift-bolted  to  the  stringers.  Three-  by  8-inch  guard 
rails  are  then  placed  on  top  of  the  ends  of  the  ties  parallel  to 
the  stringers  and  spiked  to  every  other  tie  to  prevent  the  ties 
from  bunching. 

Where  the  trestle  is  less  than  9  feet  high  it  is  seldom  braced, 
but  where  the  height  exceeds  this  it  is  braced  on  each  side  with 
3-  by  6-inch  scantlings  placed  diagonally  across  each  row  of  piles, 
the  top  end  of  the  brace  being  fastened  to  the  cap  and  the  lower 
end  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  bent  just  above  the  ground. 
The  scantlings  are  spiked  to  the  cap  and  to  each  pile. 

Where  the  bent  exceeds  20  feet  in  height  it  is  divided  into  two 
stories  by  horizontal  braces  of  3-  by  8-inch  scantling,  and  each 
story  is  braced  diagonally  in  the  manner  described  above.  At 
each  story  every  bent  is  connected  by  a  longitudinal  brace. 
Bents  over  20  feet  in  height  consist  of  five  piles  whose  diameters 
should  not  be  less  than  one-twentieth  of  their  length.  One  pile 
is  placed  in  the  center  of  each  bent  and  two  others  are  placed  on 
either  side  at  a  distance  of  approximately  24  inches,  center  to 
center.  The  two  other  piles  are  placed  about  one  foot  out  at 
the  top  of  the  bent  and  are  given  a  batter  of  2  inches  for  each 
foot  of  height. 

In  swampy  sections  the  main  Hne  is  sometimes  built  on  piling. 
The  advantage  of  this  form  of  road  is  that  a  firm  foundation  is 
secured  in  places  where  dirt  ballast  could  not  be  used,  stumps 
need  not  be  removed,  and  the  cost  of  maintenance  for  the  first 
few  years  is  low. 

In  cypress  swamps  these  roads  are  made  of  piles  from  12  to 
15  inches  in  diameter,  driven  down  to  a  solid  foundation,  which 
may  be  from  60  to  80  feet.  Piles  30  feet  long  are  made  from  one 
cypress  stick  but  lengths  greater  than  this  are  secured  by 
placing    one    pile    on    top    of    another.      Cypress   is    used    for 


RAILROAD   CONSTRUCTION  281 

the  top  log  and  tupelo  for  the  lower  ones.  The  bents  are  placed 
at  6-foot  intervals  and  are  composed  of  two  piles  driven  56I 
inches  apart,  center  to  center. 

A  pile  driver  crew  for  building  a  road  of  this  character  is  made 
up  of  eight  men  who  can  cut  and  drive  from  twenty  to  thirty-six 
piles  (from  60  to  100  feet  of  track)  per  day  of  ten  hours.  The 
roads  are  built  from  2  to  6  feet  above  the  ground  level,  and  the 
piles  are  sawed  off  at  the  desired  height. 

Stringers  8  by  8  inches,  or  8  by  10  inches,  are  laid  on  top  of 
the  piles  and  on  these  6-  by  8-inch  by  8-foot  crossties  are  laid, 
24  inches  center  to  center. 

Thirty-five  or  45-pound  steel  rails  are  used. 

Rod  locomotives  of  from  thirty  to  forty  tons  are  generally 
employed. 

The  approximate  cost,  per  mile,  of  a  road  of  this  character  is 
$1400  for  labor,  and  $1100  for  stringers  and  crossties. 

A  road  of  similar  character  constructed  on  swampy  ground  in 
the  State  of  Washington  cost  $1300  per  mile,  exclusive  of  the 
value  of  the  timber  used.^ 

Framed  Trestles.  —  These  are  made  both  of  round  and  squared 
timbers,  but  if  the  former  must  be  brought  from  a  considerable 
distance  it  is  advisable  to  use  the  latter  because  they  are  easier 
to  fit,  and  are  more  durable. 

The  frames,  or  bents,  consist  of  four  supports,  or  legs,  made 
of  round  timber  from  15  to  18  inches  in  diameter  or  10-  by 
1 2-inch,  or  1 2-  by  1 2-inch  squared  timbers.  On  a  standard-gauge 
road  two  of  the  legs  are  vertical  and  36  inches  apart,  while  the 
other  two  legs  are  given  a  batter  of  from  2  to  3  inches  for  each 
foot  of  height.  The  legs  rest  on  a  timber  called  a  sill  to  which 
they  are  drift-bolted.  Sills  vary  in  length  according  to  the  height 
of  the  trestle  and  project  about  2  feet  beyond  the  base  of  the 
outer  legs.  The  tops  of  the  legs  are  covered  with  a  cap  12  or 
14  feet  long  on  which  the  stringers  rest. 

Framed  bents  may  rest  on  mud  sills,  or  piles.  Where  mud 
sills  are  used  they  are  frequently  12  by  12  inches  by  4  feet  and 
are  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  bent,  and  a  sufhcient  number 
^  See  The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  37-38. 


LOGGING 


are  used  to  provide  a  greater  bearing  surface  than  that  offered 
by  the  main  sill. 

Mud  sills  are  suited  for  a  bottom  solid  enough  to  provide  a 
firm  support  but  they  are  not  adapted  for  use  in  swamps  or 
stream  beds.  The  foundations  used  in  the  two  latter  cases 
consist  of  piles  driven  to  bed  rock,  one  being  placed  under  the 
base  of  each  leg,  and  cut  off  2  or  3  feet  above  high-water  mark. 


Pholo&raph  by  R.  C.  Hall. 
Fig.  78.  — a  Round  Timber  Framed  Trestle  on  a  Lodging  Railroad. 
The  large  skidway  on  the  right  is  several  feet  below  the  le\el  of 
the  track.     Alabama. 

Stringers,  ties  and  guard  rails  are  used  as  on  a  pile  trestle, 
and  the  bents  are  braced  in  the  same  manner. 

Cost  of  Trestles.  —  Framed  trestles  are  frequently  built  by 
contract,  the  price  being  regulated  by  the  amount  of  timber  used 
and  the  height  of  the  trestle.  The  labor  charge  for  trestle  con- 
struction where  the  structure  is  less  than  10  feet  in  height  is  from 
$2  to  $4  per  thousand  feet  of  timber  used,  while  high  trestles  may 
cost  from  $7  to  $10. 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION 


283 


Payment  for  pile  trestles,  when  built  by  contract,  is  made  on 
the  basis  of  the  number  of  piles  driven  and  the  amount  of  sawed 
timber  used  in  the  remainder  of  the  structure. 

Dunnage  or  Dust  Road.  —  This  is  a  type  of  cheap  logging 
road  employed  for  spurs  in  the  cypress  swamps  of  Louisiana 
where  the  bottom  is  too  soft  for  dirt  ballast,  and  the  cost  of 
a  pile  road  is  not  warranted  by  the  amount  of  timber  to  be 
removed. 


Fig.  79.  —  The  Foundation  for  a  Dunnage  Road.     Louisiana. 


The  construction  of  a  dunnage  road  is  preceded  by  clearing 
a  right-of-way  from  15  to  20  feet  wide  from  which  all  brush  is 
cut  and  stumps  removed  from  the  line  of  the  roadbed.  The  latter 
is  covered  with  small  poles  from  5  to  6  inches  in  diameter,  laid 
close  together,  lengthwise  of  the  right-of-way.  These  give  a 
wide  bearing  surface  and  serve  as  a  bed  on  which  the  ballast  is 
placed.     The  crossties  are  laid  on  the  poles  and  the  rails  spiked 


284  LOGGING 

to  them.  The  track  is  then  ballasted  with  bark,  edgings,  saw- 
dust and  sawmill  refuse  of  all  sorts  which  is  brought  from  the 
mill  in  ''dunnage"  cars.  The  dunnage  is  dumped  on  either  side 
of  the  rails,  then  thoroughly  tamped  under  the  ties  and,  when  the 
track  is  leveled  up,  it  is  ready  for  operation.  Light-weight 
locomotives,  from  18  to  30  tons,  are  used  because  this  type  of 
roadbed  will  not  stand  heavy  trafitic. 

The  labor  cost  of  constructing  dunnage  roads  including  the 
laying  and  taking  up  of  steel  is  from  $1300  to  $1500  per  mile. 

Cribwork.  —  A  crib  foundation  may  be  used  when  logging 
railroads  cross  low  places  that  are  too  soft  for  a  fill,  and  where 
the  lumber  company  is  not  prepared  to  put  in  piling.  Logs  18  or 
24  inches  in  diameter  and  16  or  18  feet  long  are  placed  across 
the  right-of-way  at  intervals  of  8  feet.  On  top  of  these,  and 
parallel  to  the  roadbed,  round  stringers  from  18  to  24  inches  in 
diameter  are  placed  56I  inches,  center  to  center.  These  are 
notched  into  the  cross-skids  and  drift-bolted  to  them.  The 
crossties  are  then  laid  on  top  of  these  stringers.  The  cross- 
skids  are  given  a  greater  bearing  surface  by  placing  "shims"  or 
poles  from  4  to  6  inches  in  diameter  and  8  or  10  feet  long  at 
right  angles  under  them. 

Labor  on  work  of  this  character  costs  from  $4  to  $6  per  thou- 
sand feet  of  timber  used. 

Corduroy  for  Logging  Roads.  —  An  excellent  practice  followed 
by  some  loggers  in  the  South  is  to  corduroy  unballasted  spur 
tracks  on  wet  ground  with  16-  or  20-foot  poles  from  4  to  12  inches 
in  diameter  (Fig.  80).  A  pole  is  placed  in  the  space  between 
the  ties  and  projects  out  far  enough  on  either  side  to  rest  on 
solid  ground  or  roots.  The  poles  provide  a  level  support  to 
the  track.  Even  though  it  does  sink  temporarily  under  the 
weight  of  the  train,  it  will  go  down  on  a  level,  so  that  there  is 
no  danger  of  derailment,  while  shims  placed  under  the  ties  par- 
allel with  the  roadbed  often  allow  the  track  to  settle  on  one  side. 

When  spurs  cross  swampy  ground,  some  loggers  dispense  with 
ties,  and  cover  the  roadbed  with  poles  10  or  12  feet  long  to 
which  the  rails  are  spiked.  A  road  of  this  character  will  support 
light  traffic  even  on  a  very  wet  bottom. 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION 


^85 


Culverts.  —  These  are  used  where  the  grade  crosses  very  small 
streams,  or  slight  depressions  where  it  is  necessary  to  have 
drainage  from  one  side  of  the  grade  to  the  other. 

They  are  ordinarily  made  by  placing  logs  from  18  to  30  inches 
in  diameter  across  the  right-of-way  on  either  side  of  the  stream 


Fig.  80.  —  A  Spur  Logging  Railroad  corduroyed  with  Poles.     Arkansas. 

and  covermg  them  with  slabs  split  from  12-  to  18-inch  timbers. 
Brush  is  often  piled  on  top  of  the  slabs  to  prevent  the  dirt  from 
falling  through,  and  the  grade  is  then  built  over  the  culvert. 
Box  culverts  made  of  plank  are  seldom  used  because  of  the 
greater  cost  for  material.  Round  galvanized  iron  culverts  are 
now  used  on  some  main  lines. 


286  LOGGING 

Cattle  Guards.  —  Log  roads  that  pass  over  private  lands  or 
cross  public  highways  use  cattle  guards  to  prevent  stock  from 
passing  down  the  right-of-way.  The  usual  type  is  an  open  pit 
3  or  4  feet  deep,  5I  feet  long  and  3  or  4  feet  wide,  which  is  in- 
closed with  a  frame  of  12-  by  12 -inch  timbers.  A  division  fence 
extends  from  the  guard  to  the  highway  fence. 

This  form  of  cattle  guard  is  dangerous  if  cars  are  derailed 
on  them,  because  the  trucks  will  drop  into  the  pit.  Animals 
also  may  fall  in  and  cause  a  wreck.  They  are,  however,  a 
convenient  and  cheap  form  to  construct  and  are  in  favor  on 
that  account. 

TRACK   SUPPLIES 

Crossties.  —  The  size  of  crossties  used  depends  on  the  gauge 
of  the  road.  They  may  be  sawed  or  hewed.  Narrow-gauge  ties 
are  made  6  or  7  feet  long  and  standard-gauge  ones  are  8  feet. 
Squared  ties  are  frequently  6  by  8  inches  in  size  and  pole  ties 
for  a  narrow  gauge  have  a  3-  to  5-inch  face,  and  for  a  standard- 
gauge  a  6-inch  face. 

Ties  are  usually  cut  on  the  operation  and  are  made  both  from 
hardwoods  and  softwoods.  The  work  is  generally  performed  by 
contract,  the  rate  being  from  10  cents  to  15  cents  each  for  making 
standard  ties  and  from  8  to  10  cents  for  narrow-gauge  pole  ties. 
Hauling  to  the  railroad  costs  from  2  to  4  cents  per  tie  and  load- 
ing on  cars  from  i  to  2  cents. 

An  expert  tie  hacker  will  hew  thirty-live  or  forty  standard 
ties  per  day,  an  average  man  twenty-five  or  thirty. 

They  are  placed  at  2-foot  intervals,  center  to  center,  on  main 
lines  and  spurs.  On  the  latter  they  wear  out  before  they  decay, 
because  of  the  frequent  pulling  and  driving  of  spikes. 

Crossties  of  special  length  are  required  for  a  switch.  The 
timbers  in  a  set  for  a  single  switch  range  in  length  from  9  to  15 
feet  and  the  number  varies  with  the  frog;  e.g.,  a  number  8  frog 
requires  47  and  a  number  10  frog  56.  These  are  often  sawed 
out  in  the  mill.  On  rough  track  the  long  switch  ties  may  be 
replaced  by  two  standard  length  ties. 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION 


.87 


Steel  Rails.  —  Rails  are  classified  according  to  their  weight  in 
pounds  per  lineal  yard,  and  those  of  a  given  weight  are  now  made 
of  a  uniform  size. 

The  chief  parts  of  a  rail  are  the  head,  the  web,  and  the 
flange  base.  The  head  contains  42  per  cent  of  the  metal,  the 
web  21  per  cent  and  the  flange  37  per  cent. 

WEIGHTS   AND    DIMENSIONS   OF    STANDARD   RAILS  1 


Rail  part. 


A 

B 

Cand  D. 

B 

F 

G 


Weight  per  yard  in  pounds. 


45              50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

Dimensions  in  inches. 


2 

2\ 

2i 

25 

2^ 

2^ 

u 

^ 

M 

U 

h 

H 

,sH 

^i 

4t^ 

4i 

4^ 

4- 

■ik 

H 

H 

M 

^1 
2- 

-i 

Ak 

2^ 

2^ 

2H 

2— 

lA 

li 

i4 

lA 

i^ 

ih 

2M 

il 

4lt 

n 

2tl 

III 


From  the  International  Library  of  Technology,  Vol.  35B,  §57,  p.  9. 


Rails  are  sold  by  the  long  ton.  Although  the  standard  rail 
length  is  30  feet,  shippers  reserve  the  right  to  include  10  per 
cent  of  from  24-  to  28-foot  rails  in  a  given 
order. 

Narrow-gauge  roads  use  25-  or  3  5 -pound 
rails;  and  standard-gauge  35-  or  45-pound 
rails  on  spurs,  and  from  45-  to  70-pound 
rails  on  main  lines.  The  lighter  rails  are 
an  advantage  on  spurs  because  they  can 
be  handled  more  readily. 

The  long  tons  of  rails  of  different  weights 
required  per  mile  of  road  may  be  found 
by  multiplying  the  weight  per  yard  by  1 1 
and  dividing  the  result  by  y}  Ordinarily  the  weight  of  the  rail 
in  pounds  per  yard  should  equal  the  number  of  short  tons  carried 
on  all  the  drivers  of  the  heaviest  locomotive  that  is  to  be  used. 


Fig.  8 1. —  A  Standard  Rail 
Head.  A,  the  head. 
B.  the  web.  C,  the  flange 
base. 


Example :  weight  of  rail,  60  pounds  per  yard;  then 


60X  II 


=  94  tons,  640  pounds. 


288  LOGGING 

For  example,  a  locomotive  having  a  weight  of  80,000  pounds 
on  its  drivers  should  not  be  operated  on  less  than  a  40-pound 
rail. 

Lumber  companies  frequently  buy  or  lease  second-hand 
rails  from  trunk-line  railroads.  The  latter  practice  is  com- 
mon in  some  sections,  where  trunk  lines  have  second-hand 
steel,  which  accumulated  when  a  change  in  the  weight  of  the 
rails  was  made  on  their  lines.  The  lease  of  steel  at  low  rates 
serves  to  encourage  the  development  of  the  lumber  industry 
along  the  trunk  line  because  it  reduces  the  lumberman's  invest- 
ment in  equipment. 

The  price  of  new  rails  at  steel  mills  is  about  $32  per  ton. 

Rail  Fastenings.  —  Either  angle  bars  or  fish  plates  are  used  to 
strengthen  and  brace  the  rails  at  the  joint. 


h 
Fig.  82.  —  Forms  of  Rail  Fastenings,     a,  angle  bars.     6,  fish  plates. 


Angle  bars,  which  are  of  several  patterns,  are  bolted  on  each 
side  of  the  joint  with  from  two  to  three  bolts  in  each  rail  head 
(Fig.  82,  a).      They  are  used  on  main-line  logging  roads. 

Fish  plates,  sometimes  called  "straps, "  are  plain  bars  of  steel 
bolted  to  the  rail  in  the  same  manner  as  the  angle  bars,  but 
usually  with  not  more  than  two  bolts  per  rail  head  (Fig.  82,  &). 
They  are  especially  adapted  for  logging-spur  tracks,  because  they 
can  be  put  on  quicker  than  angle  bars  and  are  equally  serviceable 
for  light  traffic. 

Standard  requirements  call  for  357  joints  per  mile. 

Spikes.  —  Rails  are  fastened  to  the  crossties  by  square 
spikes  which  vary  in  length  and  size  with  the  weight  of  rail. 
Four  spikes  are  driven  to  each  tie,  one  on  each  side  of  each 
rail. 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION 


289 


ESTIMATED   AMOUNT  OF  MATERIAL   REQUIRED   FOR    ONE 
MILE   OF  TRACK   FOR   RAILS   OF   A   GIVEN   WEIGHT 


Weight  of  rails 
per  yard 

Number  of  tons 
of  2240  pounds. 

Pounds  of  spikes . . 

Number  of  angle 
bars 

Number  of  cross- 
ties 

Pounds  of  bolts 
and  nuts 


16 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

25-14 

2090 

31-42 
3110 

39-28 
3520 

47-14 
3520 

55-00 
3520 

62.85 
5170 

70.71 
5170 

78.57 
S170 

86.42 
S170 

357 

35; 

357 

357 

357 

357 

357 

357 

357 

2640 

2640 

2640 

2640 

2640 

2640 

2640 

2640 

2640 

318 

335 

353 

764 

1124 

1124 

1124 

1171 

1217 

94.28 

5870 

357 
2640 
1825 


a  STUB  SWITCH 

Q^yp-nnnnnnnn 


SPLIT  SWITCH 


C    - 


de  =Toeof  Frog 
ab  ^Frog  Heel 
acb  -Frog  Angle  =  dce 
Ch  =  Length  of  Frog 
The  Frog  Number  "»i' '  =  ff 

Fig.  83.  — Two  Forms  of  Turnouts  used  on  Logging  Railroads,     a,  the  stub 
switch,     h,  the  split  switch,     c,  a  standard  frog. 


290  LOGGING 

Turnouts.  —  The  device  used  to  connect  two  given  sets  of 
track  is  known  as  a  turnout.  It  consists  of  three  separate  parts 
known  as  the  switch,  the  frog  and  the  guard  rails. 

(i)  The  switch  is  the  moveable  part  of  the  turnout  and  is 
the  point  at  which  the  two  divergent  tracks  meet.  There  are 
two  kinds  in  use  by  loggers;  (a)  the  stub-switch  in  which  both 
mainline  rails  are  cut  (Fig.  83),  and  {h)  the  split  switch  in  which 
but  one  main-line  rail  is  cut  (Fig.  83).  The  latter  is  preferred 
because  of  its  greater  safety. 

(2)  Frogs  provide  the  means  by  which  the  flanges  of  the  wheels 
can  cross  the  rail  of  the  track  when  the  train  is  entering  or  leaving 
a  switch  (Fig.  83,  a).  Frogs  are  built  ready  for  use  in  the  track 
and  are  made  for  various  degrees  of  curvature,  each  size  being 
designated  by  a  number.  Those  in  most  common  use  on  stand- 
ard-gauge logging  roads  are  No.  6  (9°  32'),  No.  8  (7°  09')  and 
No.  10  (5°  43')-  The  number  of  a  given  frog  can  be  determined 
by  dividing  the  length  of  frog  by  the  width  of  the  frog  heel, 
the  quotient  being  the  frog  number. 

(3)  Both  on  the  main  line  and  the  spur,  guard  rails,  from  10 
to  15  feet  long,  are  placed  opposite  the  frog  and  serve  to  hold  the 
wheel  flanges  against  the  outer  rail  and  thus  make  the  wheel 
flanges  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  car  follow  the  proper  rail. 
The  space  between  the  head  of  the  guard  rail  and  that  of  the 
main  rail  is  2  inches. 

STEEL   LAYING   AND    REMOVAL 

Steel  laying  and  removal  may  be  performed  either  by  hand 
labor,  or  by  track-laying  machines.  The  work  is  done  both  by 
contract  and  by  day  labor,  although  the  latter  is  the  more 
common. 

A  crew  of  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-five  men,  provided  with 
a  light  engine,  and  one  or  more  cars  carrying  crossties,  rails  and 
other  supplies,  will  lay  by  hand  from  1500  to  2000  feet  of  track, 
daily,  at  a  cost  of  from  if  to  2  cents  per  linear  foot.  Rails  and 
ties  are  carried  on  flat  cars  each  holding  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
pairs  of  rails  with  the  required  number  of  ties.  The  cars  are 
pushed  ahead  of  the  locomotive  to  the  point  where  construction 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION  29 1 

is  to  begin.  Ties  are  then  laid  in  position  on  the  right-of-way, 
and  the  rails  placed  on  them.  The  rails  are  connected  by  angle 
bars  or  fish  plates  and  spiked  to  every  third  or  fourth  tie.  This 
gives  the  rail  sufficient  bracing  to  hold  up  the  train  which  is 
pushed  forward  a  rail  length  and  the  operation  repeated.  In 
taking  up  track  this  process  is  reversed.  The  cost  is  about  the 
same  as  for  laying  track. 

Spurs  are  moved  with  such  frequency  that  it  is  seldom  feasible 
to  carry  a  stock  of  bent  rails  for  curved  portions  of  the  track. 
In  nearly  all  cases  it  is  practicable  to  bend  the  rails  to  the  proper 
curve  as  they  are  spiked.  On  main-fine  work  a  rail-bending 
machine  is  sometimes  employed. 

Where  spurs  are  being  built  constantly  the  steel-laying  crew 
may  spend  alternate  days  in  removing  steel  and  ties  from  an 
abandoned  road  and  in  placing  them  on  a  new  roadbed. 

On  main  lines  the  expansion  of  the  rails  during  warm  weather 
must  be  taken  into  account  in  order  to  prevent  buckfing.  To 
remedy  this  a  space  of  j\  of  an  inch  in  winter  and  ^q  of  an  inch 
in  summer  is  left  between  rail  ends.  On  spurs  the  rails  seldom 
fit  closely  so  that  this  factor  may  be  disregarded. 

During  recent  years  several  mechanical  devices  have  been 
invented  to  simpfify  and  cheapen  track  laying  and  removal. 
The  machines  now  offered  are  of  two  general  types:  (i)  those 
that  handle  the  rails  and  ties  in  sections  or  panels  one  rail  length 
long;  (2)  those  that  handle  rails  and  ties  separately.  The  first 
method  is  best  adapted  for  flat  lands  where  there  are  few  curves 
and  turnouts  on  the  line,  for  where  these  occur  the  track  sections 
must  be  broken  up  before  they  can  be  relaid.  The  rails  are  laid 
with  "even  joints." 

An  operation  in  Florida  using  a  double- track  locomotive  crane 
employs  a  train  made  up  of  a  locomotive,  four  flat  cars  and  the 
track  mover  at  the  rear  end.  The  train  is  backed  out  to  the  end 
of  the  line  that  is  to  be  taken  up,  the  bolts  on  one  end  of  the  fish 
plates  are  removed,  and  four  chains  are  attached  near  the  center 
of  a  30-foot  section,  which  is  elevated  several  feet  by  a  cable  on 
the  track  mover.  The  latter  is  then  revolved  in  an  arc  of  180 
degrees  and  the  section  deposited  on  the  flat  car  directly  behind 


292  LOGGING 

it.  The  train  is  then  run  forward  a  rail  length  and  the  process 
repeated.  When  ten  sections,  or  300  feet  of  track,  have  been 
placed  on  a  flat  car,  it  is  switched  out  by  the  locomotive  and  an 
empty  substituted.  After  loading  four  flats  with  1200  feet  of 
track,  the  train  proceeds  to  a  new  line  where  with  the  track 
mover  ahead  the  process  is  reversed  and  the  track  laid. 

The  track-laying  crew  on  this  operation  consists  of  one  track 
foreman,  who  runs  the  track-moving  machine,  one  negro  laborer 
on  the  flat  car  to  fasten  and  loosen  chains,  and  three  or  four 
negro  laborers  on  the  ground  to  handle  the  section,  bolt  up  and 
unbolt  fish  plates  and  perform  similar  work. 

The  cost  of  laying  and  taking  up  track  is  approximately 
2  cents  per  foot.  This  crew,  in  addition  to  averaging  2000 
feet  of  track  daily,  clears  the  right-of-way  and  cuts  wood  for 
fuel. 

To  obviate  the  difficulty  of  handling  turnouts  and  curved 
sections  a  machine  has  recently  been  patented  for  handling  rails 
and  ties  separately.  The  machine  is  mounted  on  a  flat  car  and 
has  a  system  of  endless  transfer  chains  which  run  from  one  end  of 
the  car  to  the  other  and  project  over  the  forward  end  to  the  outer 
edge  of  a  cantilever,  the  end  of  which  may  be  lowered  or  raised 
as  necessary.  The  transfer  chains  may  be  operated  in  either 
direction  and  are  used  for  the  transport  of  ties  from  the  track  to 
the  storage  space  on  the  car,  or  vice  versa. 

A  trolley  system  for  handling  the  rails  extends  along  both  sides 
of  the  machine  and  projects  beyond  the  forward  end  for  a  dis- 
tance sufficient  to  permit  the  loose  rafls  to  be  gripped  at  the 
center  by  a  block  and  tackle  suspended  from  the  trolley. 

Power  for  driving  the  various  working  parts  of  the  machine  is 
supplied  by  an  engine  which  is  provided  with  steam  by  the 
locomotive.     It  is  mounted  on  the  rear  of  the  car. 

In  taking  up  track  the  machine  is  run  out  to  the  end  of  the 
fine.  After  the  track  is  broken  up  the  rails  are  gripped  near  the 
center,  hoisted  off  the  ground,  carried  to  the  rear  on  a  trolley 
and  stored  along  the  sides  of  the  machine.  The  ties  are  placed 
on  the  transfer  chains  by  laborers,  and  transported  to  the  car. 
When  one  panel  has  been  taken  up  the  car  is  moved  back  for 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION  293 

another  panel  length  and  the  operation  repeated.  For  track 
laying  the  process  is  reversed. 

A  device  for  handling  rails  and  ties  at  an  operation  in  Oregon^ 
consists  of  an  8-  by  lo-inch,  or  9-  by  lo-inch  donkey  engine 
equipped  with  two  drums  having  24-inch  barrels  and  a  capacity 
of  from  1200  to  1400  feet  of  f-inch  cable,  and  an  ''A"  boom 
on  which  are  hung  two  blocks,  one  in  the  peak  and  one  midway 
between  the  peak  and  the  frame  on  which  the  equipment  is 
mounted. 

The  donkey  is  placed  on  a  car  and,  with  an  empty  flat  in  front, 
is  run  out  on  the  track  to  be  taken  up.  The  machine  can 
operate  only  on  straight  stretches  of  track;  heitce,  where  there 
are  frequent  curves,  a  set-up  must  be  made  at  the  head  of  each 
curve.  The  maximum  range  of  the  machine  is  from  1000  to 
1200  feet. 

A  cable  is  run  from  the  peak  block  to  another  block  which  is 
attached  to  a  tree  or  stump  about  30  feet  to  one  side  of  the  track. 
A  second  cable  is  also  run  from  the  lower  block  to  one  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  track.  The  lines  are  then  dragged  by  a 
horse  to  the  end  of  the  spur. 

The  bolts  are  removed  from  one  end  of  the  fish  plates,  and 
the  latter  left  on  the  rear  end  of  each  rail.  The  cable  is  then 
attached  to  the  rail  and  it  is  drawn  forward  beside  the  next  one. 
When  four  rails  are  attached  they  are  drawn  in  along  the  side 
of  the  empty  car,  and  loaded  with  the  line  from  the  peak  block. 
About  sixty-four  ties  are  made  into  a  pile,  a  choker  placed 
around  them,  and  the  pile  drawn  in  at  the  side  of  the  flat  car 
where  they  are  loaded  by  hand.  In  ten  hours,  twelve  or  four- 
teen men  can  pick  up  and  load  from  1 200  to  1400  feet  of  track 
without  the  assistance  of  a  locomotive. 

Track-laying  crews  are  followed  by  back  spikers,  who  complete 
the  spiking  of  the  track.  On  main  line  and  curves  four  spikes 
are  placed  in  each  tie,  two  for  each  rail,  but  on  spurs  every  other 
tie  may  be  spiked.  The  track  can  be  taken  up  more  readily 
if  it  has  a  minimum  number  of  spikes  to  pull  and  the  life  of  the 
tie  is  also  increased.  A  crew  of  seven  men  will  back-spike  1600 
feet  of  track  per  day. 

1  The  Timberman,  Portland,  Oregon,  August,  1912,  p.  48. 


294 


LOGGING 


The  back-spiking  crew  is  followed  by  the  surfacing  gang  who 
level  up  the  roadbed  with  ballast,  dig  or  open  drainage  ditches 
alongside  of  the  track,  adjust  the  gauge,  raise  the  outer  rails  on 
curves,  and  perform  any  work  necessary  to  put  the  road  in  a 
condition  for  operation.  On  main  lines  a  large  amount  of  sur- 
facing may  be  done,  but  on  spurs  it  is  limited. 


Speed,  Miles  per  Hour 
5  10  15  20 


1 

^ 

?N= 

-^-^ 



1 

b^e^ 

- 

n 

y 

^ 

-^v 

^ 

sfeSi 

H 

hJ 

- 

^v — 

\  \ 

^ 

^r — V^; ^V 

\     \ 

f — ^ 

^ 

_ 

t 

<sa 

\ \ 

Fig.  84. 


Diagram  showing  the  Customary  Elevation  of  the  Outer  Rail,  in  Inches, 
for  Various  Degrees  of  Curvature. 


Roads  which  have  sharp  curves  must  have  the  gauge  widened 
to  reduce  the  frictional  resistance  of  the  wheels  against  the  rails. 
It  is  customary  to  widen  the  gauge  at  least  ^^g-inch  for  each  2^ 
degrees  of  curvature  in  excess  of  5  degrees.  For  example,  the 
gauge  would  be  increased  ^-inch  for  a  20-degree  curve.  The 
extra  width  allowed  is  dependent  chiefly  on  the  width  of  the  car 
wheel  treads. 

The  centrifugal  force  of  a  train  under  speed  tends  to  force  the 
wheels  against  the  outer  rail.     This  tendency  increases  with 


RAILROAD    CONSTRUCTION  295 

speed  and  is  greater  on  a  sharp  curve  than  on  an  easy  one.  It 
is  overcome  by  elevating  the  outer  rail  and  lowering  the  inner 
one  and  also  by  coning  the  tread  of  the  wheels.  The  diagram 
(Fig.  84)  shows  the  customary  elevation  for  standard-gauge 
track  on  curves  up  to  40  degrees  and  for  speed  up  to  30  miles 
per  hour. 

The  elevation  for  track  of  another  gauge  is  approximately  in 
proportion  to  its  relation  to  the  standard-gauge. 

On  light  work  forty  men  may  surface  and  put  in  condition 
about  one  mile  of  road  per  day,  at  a  cost  of  from  $60  to  $75 
per  mile,  while  on  main  lines  the  cost  may  be  $600  or  more  per 
mile. 

Cost  of  Construction.  —  The  cost  of  construction  per  mile  on 
logging  railroads  varies  widely  even  in  a  given  region.  The  two 
factors  that  greatly  influence  it  are  topography  and  the  character 
of  the  bottom  on  which  the  road  is  to  be  built. 

Construction  is  cheapest  in  the  flat  pine  forests  of  the  extreme 
southern  States,  where  a  minimum  of  grading  is  required.  On 
the  other  hand  the  rough  topography  of  some  of  the  Pacific 
Coast  country  often  requires  heavy  grading  work  and  high 
trestles  and  the  roads  must  be  built  more  carefully  for  trans- 
porting the  large  and  heavy  timber.  Swamps  such  as  are  found 
in  the  cypress  region  also  necessitate  a  heavy  expenditure  because 
the  main  roads  have  to  be  built  on  piling. 

Loggers  in  all  sections  spend  a  maximum  of  from  50  to  75  cents 
per  thousand  feet  of  timber  hauled  for  the  construction  of  the 
road,  from  20  to  30  per  cent  of  which  is  expended  on  the  main 
line.  The  cost  of  main  line  logging  roads,  exclusive  of  rails  and 
other  supplies,  in  the  southern  pine  region  ranges  from  $700  to 
$2000  per  mile,  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast  between  $3000  and 
$6000.  Spur  lines  in  the  South  cost  from  $250  to  $600  and  on 
the  Pacific  Coast  from  $1500  to  $2000  per  mile.  The  cost  of  a 
main  line  including  new  steel  rails,  angle  bars,  spikes,  crossties 
and  supplies  will  exceed  the  figures  given  by  from  $3000  to 
$3500  per  mile. 

Maintenance-of-Way.  —  Section  crews  are  employed  to  keep 
the  road  ballasted  up,  maintain  the  gauge,  keep  the  drainage 


296  LOGGING 

ditches  open,  replace  broken  or  decayed  ties  and  to  make  any 
repairs  that  may  be  required.  A  crew  of  five  men  under  a 
section  foreman  will  keep  in  order  six  miles  of  main  line  or  from 
eight  to  twelve  miles  of  spur  road. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO    CHAPTER   XVIII 

Byrkit,  G.  M.:    Machine  for  Picking  up  Railroad  Track.     The  Tiraberman, 

Portland,  Oregon,  August,  191 2,  p.  48. 
Byrne,  Austin  T.:   Highway  Construction.     John  Wiley  and  Sons,  New  York. 

1901. 
Engineer  Field  Manual,  Parts  I-VI.     Professional  Papers  No.  29,  Corps  of 

Engineers,  U.  S.  x\rmy.     Third  (revised)  Edition,  Washington,  1909. 
Engineers'  Handbook.     Useful  Information  for  Practical  Men.     Compiled 

for  E.  I.  duPont  deNemours  Powder  Company,  Wilmington,  Delaware,  1908. 
Gillette,   H.  P.:    Earthwork  and  its  Cost.     McGraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  New 

York,  191 2. 
:    Handbook   of   Cost   Data.     Myron   C.   Clark   Pub.    Co., 

Chicago.     1910. 
Johnson,  J.  B.:    Theory  and  Practise  of  Surveying.     John  Wiley  and  Sons, 

New  York.     1901. 
Railroad  Engineering,  Highways,  Paving,  City  Surveying.     International 

Library  of  Technology,  Vol.  35B,  Scranton,  Pa. 
Somerville,   S.   S.:     Building   Logging   Railroads   with   a   Pile-driver.     The 

Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  37-38. 
Tracy,  John  Clinton:    Plane  Surveying.     John  Wiley  and  Sons,  New  York. 

1908. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

INCLINES 

Loggers  in  mountainous  regions  often  find  it  necessary  to 
raise  or  lower  loaded  log  cars  on  grades  too  steep  for  the  operation 
of  locomotives.  These  conditions  may  be  encountered  in  bring- 
ing timber  over  a  ridge  from  one  valley  to  another,  or  from  a 
ridge  to  a  lower  level  on  which  the  logging  railroad  is  located, 
or  vice  versa.  Logging  inclines  are  often  used  to  overcome 
difficulties  of  this  character. 

A  common  type  is  one  in  which  a  heavy  hoisting  engine  and 
a  large  drum  are  placed  at  the  head  of  the  grade  and  the  cars 
are  drawn  up,  over  a  wooden  or  a  steel  rail  track,  by  a  cable  with 
one  end  attached  to  the  front  car  and  the  other  wound  on  the 
drum. 

The  roadbed  does  not  demand  the  heavy  construction  required 
where  trains  pass,  because  there  is  no  pounding  action  such  as  is 
produced  by  a  locomotive.  An  uneven  grade  is  not  a  serious 
handicap  unless  there  are  portions  which  are  so  gentle  that  cars 
cannot  be  returned  to  the  foot  of  the  incline  by  gravity,  in  which 
case  a  trip  line  must  be  provided  which  will  pass  from  the  hoisting 
engine  through  a  block  at  the  foot  of  the  incline  and  then  back 
to  the  summit.  The  main  cable^  is  usually  i  inch  or  i  j  inches  in 
diameter,  and  the  trip  line  f-inch. 

The  wear  on  a  cable  from  friction  is  great  and  to  reduce  this 
it  is  customary  to  place  wooden  rollers  in  the  center  of  the  track 
over  which  the  main  cable  may  run.  Overhead  rollers  supported 
on  a  framework  are  used  to  hold  the  cable  down  where  there  are 
sudden  rises  in  gradient. 

Inclines  should  be  built  approximately  in  a  straight  line 
because  greater  power  is  required  when  the  direction  of  pull  is 
changed  and  the  life  of  the  cable  is  shortened  when  it  passes 

^  The  most  satisfactory  cable  is  one  with  5  or  6  strands  of  7  wires  each. 
297 


298  LOGGING 

over  rollers  at  curves.  The  maximum  efficient  length  for  an 
incline  seldom  exceeds  8000  feet. 

When  loaded  cars  are  hauled  up  one  slope  and  dropped  down 
on  the  other  side,  the  distance  on  the  downgrade  should  not 
exceed  the  maximum  for  an  upgrade  haul. 

An  incline  in  Montana  which  transports  mining  stulls  upgrade 
to  a  flume  6600  feet  distant  uses  16-foot  steel  rails  weighing  88 
pounds  each.  The  lower  5000  feet  of  the  road  has  a  7  per  cent 
grade,  and  the  remaining  1600  feet  a  12  per  cent  grade.  Power 
for  hauling  up  the  cars  is  supplied  by  three  boilers  having  about 
80-horse-power  capacity  which  furnish  steam  for  a  50-horse- 
power  engine.  The  latter  drives  the  drum  which  holds  6800  feet 
of  I -inch  cable. 

The  cost  of  construction  was  as  follows: 

834  rails,  36^  tons,  at  S40  per  ton $1,460.00 

Grading  and  laying  track 4,470. 00 

Spikes,  1750  pounds  at  2  cents 35  ■  °° 

Bolts,  3336  pounds  at  3  cents 100 .  00 

Fish  plates,  1668  pounds  at  5  cents 83 .  40 

Hauling  steel  to  tram  at  $20  per  ton 328 .  50 

Crossties,  4470  at  50  cents  each 2,235  •  0° 

4  cars  at  $40  each 160 .  00 

6,800  feet  of  i-inch  cable,  delivered  at  tram 3,425  .00 

3  boilers,  drum  and  engine  (2nd  hand)  installed 2,000.00 

$14,296.90 

The  average  daily  output  is  either  800  stulls  8  inches  and  over 
in  diameter  or  iioo  5-inch  to  7-inch  ones.  The  annual  capacity 
is  150,000  stulls. 

The  daily  labor  charge  is  as  follows : 

2  men  at  the  flume  dump  at  $3  each $6 .  00 

3  car  loaders  at  $3  each 9 .  00 

I  engineer  at  $4 4 .  00 

I  foreman 3-5° 

Total  $22.50 

There  are  several  devices,  known  as  ''snubbing  machines," 
used  for  lowering  logs  down  an  inclined  track. 

The  chief  feature  of  the  friction-brake  snubbing  machine  is 
a  heavy  frame,  carrying  a  large  drum  on  which  is  wound  the 
cable  that  holds  the  loaded  cars  in  check.     The  speed  of  the  cars 


INCLINES  299 

is  regulated  by  means  of  heavy  band  brakes  placed  on  flanges 
attached  on  either  side  of  the  drum. 

The  haul  cable  is  returned  to  the  top  of  the  incline  by  various 
devices.  One  type  consists  of  a  small  drum  placed  on  one  end 
of  the  main  drum  shaft  and  has  a  trip  line  from  a  yarding  engine 
wrapped  two  or  three  times  around  it.  When  the  main  cable  is 
to  be  wound  up,  the  trip  line  is  tightened  by  sheave  pulleys,  and, 
as  it  is  wound  in,  the  main  drum  is  rotated. 

Another  method  used  is  to  employ  a  donkey  engine  equipped 
with  a  large  drum  and  i|-inch  cable  with  the  cars  attached  to 
the  free  end.  The  speed  is  controlled  largely  through  the  car 
brakes  supplemented  by  friction  brakes  on  the  drum.  Empties 
are  brought  to  the  head  of  the  incline  by  winding  in  the  main 
cable. 

On  some  inclines  the  empties  are  brought  up  by  a  gravity 
plane.  The  snubbing  device  consists  of  a  large  drum  equipped 
with  friction  brakes  and  provided  with  a  cable  which  is  passed 
three  or  four  times  around  the  drum  to  prevent  slipping.  A 
single  track  provided  with  an  automatic  switch  at  a  point  midway 
between  the  head  and  foot  of  the  inchne  is  used. 

In  operation  loaded  cars  are  attached  to  the  cable  at  the 
head  and  empty  cars  at  the  base.  The  loaded  cars  proceed 
down  by  gravity,  passing  the  empties  on  the  midway  switch. 
When  a  loaded  car  reaches  the  base  the  cable  is  removed  and 
attached  to  an  empty  and  another  loaded  car  attached  at  the 
upper  end  and  the  trip  repeated. 

Hydraulic  machines  for  controlling  the  speed  of  cars  lowered 
on  inclines  are  used  to  some  extent  in  the  Northwest. 

A  device^  of  this  character  is  shown  in  Fig.  85,  a  and  h. 

The  water  cylinders  (A')  are  closed  at  both  ends  and  are  con- 
nected with  the  pipe  (L)  which  has  a  plug  valve  {M)  near  the 
middle.  When  {M)  is  closed  the  water  is  confined  and  holds  the 
pistons  [H)  rigidly  in  place.  Opening  the  valve  {M)  allows 
the  water  to  pass  alternately  from  one  end  of  the  cylinder  to  the 
other,  the  speed  being  governed  by  the  extent  to  which  the  valve 
is  opened.     The  controlling  levers  are  so  arranged  that  the  valves 

^  See  The  Timberman,  Portland,  Oregon,  October,  1909,  p.  51. 


300 


LOGGING 


(M)  can  only  be  opened  and  closed  gradually,  thus  avoiding 
heavy  shocks  on  the  cable.  In  addition  to  the  hydraulic  cylinder 
brakes  the  machine  is  equipped  with  emergency  brake  bands  and 
wooden  friction  blocks.  The  cable  and  empty  cars  are  returned 
to  the  head  of  the  incline  by  an  auxiliary  steam-driven  engine. 

A  snubbing  device  of  the  above  character  was  operated  on  a 
4500-foot  incline  on  which  there  was  a  difference  of  1300  feet 
elevation.  The  grade  on  a  portion  of  the  road  was  50  per  cent 
and  averaged  30  per  cent  for  the  entire  distance. 


Fig.  85.  —  A  Hydraulic  Snubbing  Machine      a,  side  view,     b,  top  view. 

One  car  holding  6000  feet,  log  scale,  a  total  weight  of  about 
20  tons,  was  lowered  with  a  i-inch  plow  steel  cable.  A  greater 
number  of  cars  could  have  been  handled  by  increasing  the  size 
of  the  cable,  but  since  the  daily  requirements  were  only  30,000 
feet,  log  scale,  this  was  unnecessary. 

In  a  western  operation,  which  had  a  20  per  cent  grade  near 
the  end  of  its  logging  railroad,  the  problem  of  lowering  cars  was 
solved  in  the  following  manner:  A  track  was  built  up  the  slope 
from  the  main  line  to  a  bench  on  which  a  yarding  engine  was 


INCLINES 


301 


placed  both  for  skidding  logs  and  loading  cars.  A  f-inch  cable 
was  laid  along  the  track  from  the  bottom  of  the  incline  to  the  top 
where  it  was  passed  through  a  block  in  the  rear  of  the  yarding 
engme  and  then  carried  down  the  track  to  the  starting  point. 
One  end  of  the  cable  was  attached  to  the  forward  end  of  the 
empty  cars,  and  the  other  end  to  the  drawhead  on  a  locomotive 
standing  on  a  parallel  track  beside  the  empty  cars.  The  eleva- 
tion of  the  cars  was  accomplished  by  running  the  locomotive  on 
the  main  line  toward  the  mill  which  hauled  the  empty  cars  from 
the  parallel  track  to  the  main  incline  track  and  then  to  the  sum- 
mit. Signals  for  starting  and  stopping  were  given  by  blasts  on 
the  whistles  of  the  locomotive  and  the  yarding  engine.  The 
speed  of  descending  cars  was  controlled  by  the  locomotive  as  it 
slowly  backed  toward  the  base  of  the  hill. 

Safety  switches  were  installed  at  both  the  top  and  bottom  of 
the  incline  so  that  the  cars  passing  up  or  down  could  be  shunted 
off  the  main  track  onto  a  siding  before  they  would  meet  other 
cars  or  the  locomotive. 

Two  loaded  cars  were  handled  at  one  time,  the  locomotive 
placing  two  empties  at  the  head  of  the  incline  and  then  taking 
the  loaded  cars  to  the  mill.  This  arrangement  resulted  in  a 
minimum  loss  of  time  for  the  train  crews. 

Dudley.  —  Where  it  is  not  possible  to  build  a  straight  track, 
and  the  length  of  incline  exceeds  i|  miles,  a  special  form  of 
traction  device,  called  a  "Dudley"  or  "Dudler,"  is  used.  It  is 
made  to  operate,  loaded,  on  ascending  or  descending  grades  and 
either  to  drag  logs  over  the  ties  or  to  haul  them  on  cars. 

Dudleys  are  often  built  in  the  shop  of  the  lumber  company. 
A  type  used  on  a  western  operation  has  an  18-inch  steel  "T" 
beam  frame,  36  feet  long  mounted  on  two  sets  of  double  trucks, 
with  an  8-foot  gauge.  The  boiler  and  the  link-motion  14  by  14- 
inch  engines  are  mounted  over  one  of  the  sets  of  double  trucks, 
and  a  water  tank  is  placed  over  the  other  set. 

The  traction  device  consists  of  a  drum  or  gypsy  wheel  6  feet  in 
diameter  with  a  12-inch  face  set  midway  of  the  frame  and  2  feet 
inside  one  of  the  rails.  Underneath  the  frame  at  each  end  an 
open  sheave  is  placed  in  line  with  the  gypsy  wheel  and  serves 


302  LOGGING 

to  receive  or  discharge  a  ij-inch  steel  driving  cable  and  provides 
a  straight  lead  on  to  the  main  drum. 

The  cable  runs  through  one  of  the  open  sheaves  on  the  end 
of  the  frame,  passes  under  and  three  times  around  the  gypsy 
wheel,  then  passes  out  from  under  the  drum  through  the  other 
open  sheave.  The  lead  sheaves  hold  the  cable  just  2  feet  inside 
of  the  rail.  On  curves  the  cable  is  held  in  place  by  wooden  pegs 
placed  far  enough  apart  to  clear  the  sheaves.  The  base  of  the 
latter  is  level  with  the  rail  head  and  when  the  cable  has  been 
picked  up  and  has  passed  around  the  drum,  the  opposite  sheave 
deposits  it  again  in  its  proper  position  on  the  ground.  The  cable 
is  stretched  tight  and  is  fastened  to  stumps  or  other  rigid  sup- 
ports at  the  head  and  base  of  the  incline.  The  remaining  6  feet 
between  the  cable  and  the  other  rail  is  used  as  a  runway  for  logs 
and  is  saddled  out  midway  between  the  wire  and  the  rail  to  form 
a  channel. 

When  a  standard-guage  track  is  used  there  is  not  sufficient 
room  between  the  rails  for  both  the  cable  and  the  logs.  The 
Dudley  is  then  equipped  with  two  gypsy  wheels  and  two  cables, 
one  of  which  operates  just  outside  of  each  rail.  The  cable  is 
prevented  from  binding  on  curves  by  differential  gears  which 
permit  the  drums  to  travel  at  different  speeds  when  rounding 
curves. 

On  roads  of  this  character  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  sudden 
changes  of  gradient,  otherwise  the  cable  when  at  rest  will  not 
remain  in  contact  with  the  cross  skids. 

When  the  Dudley  is  to  be  used  to  drag  the  logs  the  roadbed 
is  made  of  cross  skids  from  24  to  36  inches  in  diameter  and  10 
or  12  feet  long,  placed  6  or  8  feet  apart,  center  to  center,  and  on 
these  40-pound  rails  are  laid. 

As  the  large  gypsy  wheel  revolves  in  one  direction  or  the  other 
the  Dudley  is  pulled  forward  or  backward,  the  cable  remaining 
stationary. 

The  logs  are  made  up  into  turns  connected  by  means  of 
grabs.  On  a  road  in  Oregon,  14,000  feet  long,  having  grades 
ranging  from  5  to  20  per  cent  a  machine  of  this  type  hauled 
from  15  to  20  logs  (25,000  to  30,000  feet)  per  turn.     The  speed 


INCLINES  303 

attained  both  empty  and  loaded  was  approximately  4  miles  per 
hour. 

The  cost  of  operation  was  30  cents  per  thousand  feet,  log  scale, 
for  labor  and  skid  oil,  and  20  cents  per  thousand  feet  for  cable, 
making  a  total  cost  of  50  cents  exclusive  of  the  value  of  equip- 
ment. 

Machines  of  a  somewhat  different  type  but  operating  on  the 
same  general  principle  are  made  for  hauling  log  cars.  The  track 
is  made  standard-gauge  and  the  gypsy  wheel  is  placed  in  the 
center  of  the  frame,  and  the  cable  midway  between  the  rails. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE  TO   CHAPTER  XIX 

Clark,  A.  W.:  Overcoming  Grades  too  Steep  for   Geared  Locomotives.     The 

Timberman,  Portland,  Oregon,  x\ugust,  1909,  p.  34. 
MacLafferty,  T.  H.:    Handling  Logging  Trains  on  Excessive  Grades.     The 

Timberman,  July,  191 1,  p.  44. 
Nestos,  R.  R.:    Aerial  Snubbing  Device.     The  Timberman,  August,   191 2, 

p.  49- 
Potter,   E.   O.:     UtiHzation   of    the   Cable   Locomotive.     The   Timberman, 

August,  1909,  p.  34. 
Wentworth,  G.  K.:   Lowering  Logs  on  a  3200-foot  Incline.     The  Timberman, 

.\ugust,  1909,  p.  34. 
Williams,  Asa  S.:  Logging  by  Steam.     Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VT,  pp.  19-21. 


CHAPTER  XX 

MOTIVE   POWER  AND   ROLLING   STOCK 

A.     LOCOMOTIVES 

There  are  two  general  types  of  locomotives;  namely,  rod 
and  geared. 

Rod  Locomotives.  —  These  have  the  power  transmitted  from 
the  cylinders  to  the  drivers  by  means  of  a  connecting  rod.  They 
have  a  longer  wheel-base  than  geared  locomotives,  consequently 
they  cannot  take  as  sharp  curves,  but  are  the  best  type  for  a 
smooth,  well-maintained  road  of  easy  grade,  and  because  of  their 
speed  are  especially  serviceable  for  main-line  engines  when  the 
haul  exceeds  7  or  8  miles. 

Those  used  for  logging  purposes  range  in  weight  from  20  to 
115  tons.  Saddle-tank  locomotives  of  from  20  to  35  tons'  weight 
are  often  used  on  spur  tracks,  and  are  more  efficient  for  their 
size  than  types  with  a  tender  because  there  is  less  dead  weight 
for  the  engine  to  carry.  For  main-line  work  locomotives  of  40 
tons  or  more  are  in  general  use. 

A  special  form  of  rod  locomotive,  known  as  the  Mallet  Arti- 
culated Locomotive,  has  recently  come  into  use  on  logging  roads 
that  have  sharp  curves.  The  essential  features  are  two  sets  of 
engines  mounted  under  the  boilers,  each  connected  to  independent 
groups  of  drivers.  The  rear  engine  is  fixed  rigidly  to  the  boiler 
in  the  same  manner  as  for  the  regular  pattern  of  rod  locomotive. 
The  forward  engine  and  driving  wheels  are  so  attached  to  the 
boiler  that  the  truck  may  have  a  lateral  motion  when  taking 
curves.  This  truck  is  connected  to  the  rear  engine  by  means 
of  a  radial  draw-bar  and  steam  is  transmitted  to  the  cyhnders 
on  the  front  truck  through  an  articulated  pipe.  The  forward 
pony  truck  is  pivoted  and  may  swing  from  side  to  side,  inde- 
pendent of  the  trucks  bearing  the  engines.     The  cylinders  are 

334 


MOTIVE   POWER   AND    ROLLING    STOCK  305 

single  or  compound  expansion,  and  the  exhaust  steam  of  the 
rear  engine  is  used  in  the  cyHnders  of  the  forward  engine,  thus 
effecting  a  saving  in  fuel. 

The  advantages  of  this  tj-pe  of  engine  are  that  the  wheel  base 
is  materially  shortened  by  having  two  separate  sets  of  drivers 
which  permit  the  use  of  a  heavy  rod  locomotive  on  a  road  having 
curves  that  are  too  sharp  for  the  regular  type  of  rod  engine  of 
the  same  weight;  and  it  is  so  constructed  that  hve  steam  may 
be  used  in  the  cylinders  of  both  engines  to  secure  greater  power 
to  start  loads,  which  increases  the  hauling  power  of  the  loco- 
motive in  comparison  with  that  of  an  ordinary  rod  engine  of  the 
same  weight,  since  an  engine  can  keep  in  motion  a  greater  load 
than  it  can  start.  Another  feature  claimed  for  this  locomotive 
is  that  the  drivers  slip  less  than  on  other  types  of  rod  engines 
because  the  forward  engine  depends  on  the  rear  one  for  steam, 
and  should  the  drivers  connected  to  the  latter  slip,  the  exhaust 
would  fill  the  feed  pipe  of  the  forward  engine  faster  than  it  could 
be  relieved  and  the  resulting  back  pressure  on  the  high-pressure 
piston  would  reduce  the  speed  and  prevent  further  slipping. 

Locomotives  of  this  type,  ranging  in  weight  from  81  to  121 
tons,  are  in  use  on  logging  roads  in  the  Pacific  Northwest.  The 
minimum  weight  in  which  they  are  built  is  50  tons.  One  weigh- 
ing 121  tons  is  in  operation  on  the  Pacific  Coast  on  a  road  having 
35-degree  curves  and  8  per  cent  grades.^ 

Geared  Locomotives.  —  The  first  geared  locomotive  was  con- 
structed about  1885  by  E.  E.  Shay,  a  Michigan  logger,  and  this 
locomotive,  with  some  modifications  and  improvements,  is  in 
extensive  use  to-day.  Several  forms  of  geared  locomotives  other 
than  the  Shay  are  now  on  the  market. 

The  objects  sought  in  geared  locomotives  are  to  secure  a 
maximum  amount  of  tractive  force  with  a  minimum  total  weight, 
a  short  truck  base  that  will  enable  the  engine  to  take  sharp  curves 
with  ease,  and  a  form  of  truck  that  will  adjust  itself  readily  to 
an  uneven  track.  These  ends  are  accomplished  by  making  every 
wheel  under  the  engine  and  tender  a  driving  wheel;  by  trans- 
mitting power  to  the  driving  wheels  through  a  series  of  bevel 

1  The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  p.  63. 


3o6  LOGGING 

gears  that  bear  a  relation  to  each  other  of  from  2  to  i  or  from  2^ 
to  I ;  and  by  the  use  of  swivel  trucks  on  which  the  drivers  are 
arranged  in  pairs  and  connected,  one  with  another,  by  means  of 
an  articulated  driving  rod.  The  weight  is  distributed  over  a 
long  wheel  base  which  permits  the  use  of  a  smaller  rail,  fewer 
ties,  lighter  bridges  and  a  poorer  track  than  for  a  rod  locomotive 
of  the  same  weight. 

On  poor  track  where  a  speed  of  from  6  to  12  miles  per  hour, 
only,  is  possible,  geared  locomotives  are  preferable  to  rod  because 
they  have  large  fire  boxes,  short  stroke  engines,  and  a  high  piston 


Fig.  86. — A  Climax  Geared  Locomotive. 

speed.  The  slow  cylinder  speed  of  rod  engines  causes  defective 
draft  on  grades. 

There  are  two  t}pes  of  geared  locomotives,  namely,  the  center 
shaft  and  the  side  shaft. 

(i)  Center  shaft.  There  are  several  patterns  on  the  market, 
the  ones  most  commonly  used  being  the  Climax  and  the  Heisler. 

The  Climax  is  mounted  either  on  two  or  three  four-wheel 
swivel  trucks.  When  two  trucks  are  used,  one  is  placed  under 
the  forward  and  one  under  the  rear  end  of  the  locomotive. 
When  three  trucks  are  used,  two  are  placed  under  the  engine 
proper  and  one  under  the  tender.  The  boiler  is  of  the  horizontal 
locomotive  type,  mounted  on  a  steel  channel  frame,  reinforced 


MOTIVE   POWER   AND    ROLLING   STOCK 


307 


with  truss  rods.  Two  single-cylinder  engines  are  attached  to 
the  frame,  one  on  each  side  of  the  boiler,  and  transmit  the  power 
directly  to  a  heavy  crank  shaft,  placed  under  the  boiler  and  at 
right  angles  to  it.  This  shaft  is  held  in  position  by  a  frame  fixed 
to  the  boiler,  and  power  from  the  shaft  is  transmitted  by  gearing 
to  a  central  articulated  line  shaft  which  passes  to  the  forward 
and  rear  trucks  and  runs  on  bearings  on  top  of  each  truck  axle. 
Pinions  fitted  on  this  shaft  mesh  into  gears  on  each  axle  and 
thus  transmit  power  to  the  driving  wheels. 

Locomotives  of  this  class  are  built  in  weights  ranging  from 
18  to  75  tons.  Those  of  from  18  to  60  tons'  weight  have  eight 
drivers  and  those  of  from  65  to  75  tons  weight  have  twelve 
drivers. 

A  CHmax  locomotive  with  an  upright  engine  and  a  "T" 
boiler  is  built  in  15-  and  18-ton  weights.  The  frame  of  heavy 
timbers  is  supported  at  each  end  by  a  pair  of  swivel  trucks. 
Two  vertical  high-speed,  double-acting  engines  are  located  in  the 
center  of  the  main  frame  and  are  directly  connected  to  a  shaft 
which  carries  two  spur  gears  of  different  sizes,  which  mesh  into 
two  main  gears  on  the  center  driving  shaft.  These  provide  a 
high  or  low  speed  as  required.  A  center  shaft  transmits  power 
to  the  driving  wheels  in  the  same  manner  as  the  horizontal  style 
of  locomotive  previously  described.  This  locomotive  is  used  on 
stringer  and  light  steel  roads. 

The  Heisler  locomotive  is  built  in  weights  ranging  from  18 
to  75  tons.  The  locomotive  and  tender  are  carried  on  a  heavy 
steel  frame  mounted  on  two  pairs  of  swivel  trucks,  one  set  being 
placed  under  the  forward  end  of  the  locomotive  and  the  other 
under  the  tender. 

Power  is  furnished  by  two  single-cylinder  engines  attached  to 
the  frame  one  on  each  side  of  the  boiler.  Each  is  inclined  at  an 
angle  of  45  degrees  from  the  vertical.  The  reciprocating  parts 
of  the  engine  are  connected  directly  to  a  central  single-throw, 
articulated  driving  shaft. 

Spur  wheels  are  fitted  to  the  center  of  the  forward  and  the 
rear  axles  and  pinions  attached  to  each  end  of  the  driving  shaft 
mesh  into  them.     The  spur  wheels  and  pinions  are  enclosed  in 


3o8 


LOGGING 


a  tight  case  which  is  designed  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  grit  and 
other  foreign  substances. 

Heisler  locomotives  of  35  tons  weight  cost  about  $7000  and 
those  of  55  tons  weight  cost  about  $9000. 

(2)  Side  Shaft.  —  The  Shay  locomotive  is  the  only  one  of 
this  type  on  the  market.  It  is  built  in  weights  ranging  from  13 
to  150  tons. 

The  frame  is  made  of  heavy  steel  "I"  beams  braced  with 
trusses,  and  is  supported  on  from  two  to  four  pairs  of  four-wheel 


Fig.  87.  —  A  Heisler  Geared  Locomotive. 


swivel  trucks.  Locomotives  weighing  55  tons  and  less  have  two 
trucks;  those  from  65  to  105  tons,  inclusive,  three  trucks;  and 
the  1 50- ton  locomotives,  four  trucks.  The  additional  trucks  in 
the  two  latter  are  used  to  carry  the  tender. 

The  boiler  is  of  the  horizontal  locomotive  type  with  extra 
large  fire  box  and  steam  space.  The  engines  are  of  the  vertical 
type  and  are  attached  to  the  boiler  plate  on  the  right-hand  side 
just  in  front  of  the  cab.  Locomotives  of  from  13  to  20  tons 
weight  are  equipped  with  two  cylinders,  and  those  of  greater 


MOTIVE   POWER   AND   ROLLING    STOCK  309 

weight  with  three  cyhnders,  placed  side  by  side  and  directly 
connected,  120  degrees  apart,  to  a  driving  rod  which  is  supported 
on  a  heavy  bearing  attached  to  the  boiler.  The  driving  rod  is 
broken  both  with  universal  joints  and  also  with  two  slip  joints 
to  permit  either  an  increase,  or  a  decrease,  in  the  length  when 
passing  around  curves. 

The  right-hand  wheels  on  each  truck  are  fitted  with  gear  rims 
into  which  mesh  the  pinions  which  furnish  the  driving  power 
for  the  locomotive. 

A  50-ton  Shay  locomotive,  f.o.b.  factory,  costs  about  $7500. 


Fig.  88.  —  A  Shay  Geared  Locomotive. 
HAULING   ABILITY    OF    LOCOMOTIVES 

The  hauling  ability  of  a  given  locomotive  depends  largely  on 
(i)  the  tractive  force,  (2)  the  resistance  of  the  load  to  gravity, 
and  (3)  the  frictional  resistance. 

Tractive  Force.  —  The  tractive  force  of  a  locomotive,  some- 
times improperly  called  the  "draw-bar  pull,"  is  the  power 
possessed  by  a  locomotive  for  pulling  a  train,  including  the  weight 
of  the  locomotive  itself.  If  one  end  of  a  rope  is  passed  over  a 
pulley  and  fastened  to  a  weight  hanging  in  a  pit,  and  the  other 
end  is  attached  to  a  locomotive  running  on  a  straight  level  track 
without  regard  to  speed,  the  tractive  force  of  the  locomotive  will 
be  represented  approximately  by  the  amount  of  weight  the 
locomotive  can  lift.  Tractive  force  increases  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  the  area  of  piston  heads,  length  of  stroke  and  steam 
pressure  in  the  cylinders,  and  decreases  directly  as  the  diameter 
of  the  driving  wheels  increases. 


3IO  LOGGING 

Tractive  force  is  dependent  on  the  weight  of  the  locomotive 
on  its  driving  wheels  because  it  adheres  to  the  rail  only  by  the 
friction  developed  between  these  wheels  and  the  rail  head,  and 
the  resistance  to  slipping  increases  with  the  weight  on  the  driving 
wheels.  The  weight  on  wheels  other  than  drivers  has  no  effect 
on  the  tractive  force.  If  the  engine  is  too  light  in  proportion 
to  its  power  it  will  be  unable  to  hold  itself  to  the  rail  and  exert  a 
strong  pull,  while  on  the  other  hand  if  the  weight  of  the  locomo- 
tive is  too  great  in  comparison  to  its  power,  it  will  not  haul 
maximum  loads  because  of  the  excess  weight  in  itself  that  must 
be  moved.  In  industrial  locomotives  the  economical  ratio 
between  the  weight  on  the  drivers  and  the  tractive  force 
ranges  from  4I  to  i  to  5  to  i;  i.e.,  the  tractive  force  in  pounds 
is  from  23  per  cent  to  20  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  on  the 
drivers. 

The  usual  formula  employed  for  determining  the  tractive  force 
of  single-expansion  rod  locomotives  with  a  piston  speed  not 
exceeding  200  feet  per  minute  is  as  follows: 

„      d"  X  LX  .Ssp 
^  ^  D  ' 

when     T  represents  the  tractive  force, 

d  represents  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  in  inches, 
L  represents  the  length  of  piston  stroke  in  inches, 
.85  p  represents  85  per  cent  of  the  boiler  pressure,^ 
D  represents  the  diameter  of  the  driving  wheel  in  inches. 

As  the  speed  increases  the  tractive  force  decreases  because  the 
mean  effective  pressure  in  the  cylinders  falls  and  friction  also 
increases. 

Resistance  to  Gravity.  — •  The  resistance  to  gravity  increases  in 
exact  proportion  to  the  grade  and  is  always  20  pounds  per  ton  of 
2000  pounds  for  each  i  per  cent  rise  in  grade;  e.g.,  for  a  0.5  per 
cent  grade  it  is  10  pounds  per  ton  and  for  a  4  per  cent  grade  it 
is  80  pounds  per  ton. 

^  This  has  been  found  by  practical  test  to  be  the  average  effective  pressure  in 
the  cylinder. 


MOTIVE   POWER   AND   ROLLING    STOCK  311 

Resistance  due  to  Friction.  —  The  resistance  due  to  friction 
varies  with  the  character  and  condition  of  the  roadbed  and  the 
roUing  stock. 

The  resistance  of  the  flange  friction  of  wooden  rails  is  about 
twice  that  of  steel  rails.  Poorly  laid  or  crooked  rails  and  over- 
loading increase  the  rolling  friction,  which  is  also  greater  in  cold 
weather  than  in  warm  and  greater  for  empty  cars  than  for 
loaded  ones. 

Logging  cars  of  good  construction,  and  with  well-oiled  bearings 
should  have  a  frictional  resistance  of  from  12  to  20  pounds  per 
ton  of  weight  handled. 

The  frictional  resistance  on  curves  is  extremely  variable  be- 
cause it  is  governed  by  numerous  factors,  among  which  are  the 
degree  of  curvature,  length  of  the  wheel  base  of  locomotives  and 
cars,  elevation  of  the  outer  rail,  speed,  condition  of  rolling  stock 
and  track,  length  of  train,  and  length  of  the  curved  section. 
Frictional  resistance  is  partially  overcome  by  increasing  the 
width  of  track  on  curves  ^^g-inch  for  each  2^  degrees  of  curvature, 
and  also  by  coning  the  face  of  the  car  wheels  so  that  the  greatest 
diameter  is  next  the  flange.  When  crowded  against  the  rail  the 
outer  wheels  will  then  travel  farther,  per  revolution  of  the  axle, 
than  those  on  the  inner  side  of  the  curve.  Friction  is  also  de- 
veloped, because  the  rigid  attachment  of  the  axles  to  the  truck 
frame  does  not  permit  them  to  assume  a  radial  position  with 
reference  to  the  curve.  On  a  6-driver  rod  locomotive  the  long 
wheel  base  is  partially  overcome  by  making  the  center  drivers 
flangeless.  On  very  sharp  curves  it  is  customary  to  lay  extra 
rails  inside  of  the  outer  rail  and  outside  of  the  inner  rail  to  pro- 
vide a  support  for  the  flangeless  drivers.  In  determining  the 
amount  of  frictional  resistance  due  to  curves  it  is  the  general 
rule  to  assume  the  resistance  for  standard  gauge  to  be  ^  pound 
per  ton  per  degree.  If  the  wheel  base  is  the  same,  curve  resist- 
ance in  other  gauges  is  about  in  proportion  to  the  relation  of 
the  gauges. 

Calculation  of  Hauling  Capacity.  —  The  hauling  capacity  of  a 
locomotive  in  tons  of  2000  pounds  is  determined  by  dividing 
the  tractive  force  of  the  locomotive  by  the  sum  of  the  resistance 


312  LOGGING 

due  to  gravity,  rolling  friction,  and  curve  resistance,  and  trien 
deducting  from  this  result  the  weight  of  the  locomotive  and  ten- 
der. This  gives  the  tonnage  the  locomotive  can  haul,  including 
the  weight  of  the  cars. 

The  estimated  hauling  capacity  of  locomotives  of  given  weights 
and  types  can  usually  be  found  in  the  catalogues  of  the  manu- 
facturers. 

The  following  figures  were  secured  from  logging  operations. 
On  a  24-degree  curve  and  on  a  3.5  per  cent  grade,  two  40-ton 
Shay  engines  have  hauled  six  loaded  fiat  cars^  containing  42,000 
feet  board  measure,  while  the  same  locomotives  have  hauled 
eleven  cars,  77,000  feet,  over  32-degree  curves  and  a  3  per  cent 
grade.  A  60-ton  Shay  on  the  same  operation  hauled  five  cars, 
35,000  board  feet,  over  a  road  having  24-degree  curves  and  3.5 
per  cent  grades;  and  eight  or  nine  cars,  of  7000  feet  capacity 
each,  over  a  32-degree  curve  and  a  3  per  cent  grade.  A  18-ton 
Shay,  operated  on  a  road  four  miles  long  and  having  grades 
ranging  from  o  to  8  per  cent,  and  with  one  47-degree  curve 
handled  daily  150,000  board  feet.-  A  50- ton  saddle-tank,  rod 
locomotive  operated  on  a  road  having  maximum  grades  of  2  per 
cent  and  curves  of  30  degrees  has  handled  eight  loaded  skeleton 
cars  with  safety, 

FUEL    FOR    LOCOMOTIVES. 

The  fuel  used  on  logging  locomotives  may  be  wood,  coal,  or 
crude  petroleum. 

Wood  is  frequently  used  in  regions  where  coal  and  oil  are 
expensive;  because  of  heavy  transportation  charges,  however, 
it  has  several  disadvantages. 

(i)  There  is  danger  from  forest  fires  during  the  dry  season 
because  sparks  are  thrown  for  long  distances.  A  great  percent- 
age of  the  forest  fires  on  logging  operations  start  along  the 
railroad. 

(2)  There  is  a  large  bulk  of  material  to  be  handled.  It 
requires  twice   the  amount  of  wood  as  compared   to  average 

^  Length  41  feet;   weight  of  each  car  ^7,000  pounds. 
2  The  Timberman,  September,  1910. 


MOTIVE   POWER   AND   ROLLING   STOCK  313 

bituminous  coal  to  secure  equal  steaming  results,  and  the  space 
occupied  by  the  fuel  on  the  tender  is  about  five  times  as  great. 
Train  crews  spend  too  much  time  daily  in  taking  on  wood  which 
involves  loss  both  for  the  train  crew  and  locomotive. 

(3)  When  pitchy  woods  are  used  it  is  impossible  to  maintain 
an  even  heat,  because  the  resinous  matters  are  driven  off  first 
and  the  burning  gas  creates  an  intense  heat  for  a  short  period, 
but  before  the  wood  has  been  consumed  sufficiently  to  permit  a 
new  supply  to  be  fed  into  the  fire  box,  the  temperature  falls 
markedly.  This  alternate  rising  and  falling  of  temperature 
causes  a  constant  contraction  and  expansion  of  the  fire  box  and 
tube  metal  and  the  latter  soon  become  leaky. 

(4)  A  skillful  fireman  is  required  to  handle  a  wood  fire  so  that 
a  sufficient  amount  of  steam  may  be  available  at  all  times, 
especially  on  heavy  grades. 

Bituminous  coal  is  preferred  to  wood  on  logging  roads  where 
it  can  be  secured  at  a  reasonable  price,  although  it  is  fully  as 
dangerous  from  the  standpoint  of  forest  fires.  It  is  greatly 
preferred  by  firemen  because  the  labor  is  not  so  exhausting  and 
a  more  even  fire  can  be  maintained. 

Fuel  oil  has  met  with  much  favor  where  it  can  be  secured  at 
a  cost  not  greatly  in  excess  of  other  kinds  of  fuel. 

It  has  the  following  advantages  over  wood  and  coal: 

(i)    The  danger  from  forest  fires  is  eliminated. 

(2)  The  cost  of  handling  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  because 
the  oil  may  be  pumped  into  the  storage  tanks  on  the  tender  and 
a  sufficient  supply  carried  to  run  for  at  least  one-half  day.  The 
added  time  saved  in  taking  on  fuel  as  compared  to  wood  is  an 
important  item  during  the  course  of  a  month.  It  is  easier  to 
transport  oil  in  supply  tanks  than  it  is  to  handle  an  equal  fuel 
value  in  wood  or  coal. 

(3)  A  saving  in  fuel  and  water  is  effected  on  heavy  grades 
and  the  hauling  ability  increased  because  the  steam  pressure 
can  be  held  at  a  desired  point  by  increasing  the  oil  feed  under 
the  boilers.  It  is  not  possible  to  do  this  with  wood  or  coal,  since 
merely  opening  and  closing  the  fire  box  has  a  marked  eft"ect  on 
the  efficiency  of  the  locomotive  under  strained  conditions. 


314  LOGGING 

(4)  A  man  can  learn  to  fire  an  oil-burning  locomotive  in  a 
few  days  because  no  especial  skill  is  required.  A  saving  in  wages 
is  therefore  effected. 

The  relative  value  of  the  three  kinds  of  fuel  is  approximately 
as  follows: 

One  ton  of  good-grade  bituminous  coal  is  equivalent  to  one 
and  one-half  cords  of  oak  wood,  or  from  two  to  two  and  one- 
half  cords  of  softwood,  and  from  130  to  190  gallons  of  crude 
petroleum.^ 

The  choice  between  the  different  classes  of  fuel  is  made  either 
on  the  basis  of  forest  fire  danger  or  on  the  relative  cost.  Some 
roads  passing  through  forested  regions  use  oil  during  the  danger 
season  and  coal  during  other  periods. 

The  amount  of  fuel  consumed  daily  by  a  logging  locomotive 
is  extremely  variable,  depending  on  the  mileage  traveled,  the 
loads  hauled,  the  number  of  heavy  grades  traversed,  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  fireman.  A  45-ton  Shay  on  a  western  operation 
averaged  nine  barrels  of  fuel  oil  daily  at  a  cost  of  $8.60.  A  37- 
ton  Shay  in  the  same  region  burned  about  five  cords  of  softwood 
at  a  cost  of  $12.50.  A  54-ton  rod  engine  on  a  southern  pine 
operation  averaged  four  cords  of  pine  knots  per  day,  and  a  55- 
ton  Shay  on  the  same  operation  burned  from  two  to  two  and 
one-half  tons  of  bituminous  coal. 

The  average  daily  expense  for  oil,  waste,  etc.,  ranges  from 
$1.50  to  $2.00. 

WATER 

Provision  is  made  for  watering  locomotives  either  at  the  mill 
or  at  some  convenient  point  along  the  railroad.  Water  may  be 
supplied  from  storage  tanks,  by  gravity  pipe  lines  from  streams, 
or  taken  direct  from  the  streams  by  an  injector.  The  amount 
of  water  required  is  a  variable  factor,  depending  on  the  amount 
of  work  performed  by  the  engine  and  the  efficiency  of  the  fireman. 

Trautwine  says  that  between  six  and  seven  pounds  of  water 

'  Tests  on  the  Boston  and  Maine,  in  1903,  showed  that  from  130  to  140  gallons 
of  crude  petroleum  were  equal  to  a  short  ton  of  Pennsylvania  bituminous  coal.  In 
1910  the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  Railroad  in  the  Adirondacks  found 
that  from  170  to  190  gallons  of  crude  oil  were  equal  to  one  ton  of  bituminous  coal. 


MOTIVE   POWER   AND    ROLLING   STOCK  315 

are  evaporated  for  each  pound  of  average  grade  coal  that  is 
consumed.  On  a  basis  of  6^  pounds  of  water  (0.8  gallons)  per 
pound  of  coal,  1600  gallons  will  be  required  for  each  ton  of  coal, 
or  800  gallons  for  each  cord  of  wood  consumed.  Engines  which 
"blow-off"  at  frequent  intervals  will  require  more  water  than 
the  amount  mentioned. 


Logging  cars  are  subject  to  severe  usage  and  are  built  chiefly 
with  wooden  frames  so  that  repairs  can  be  made  at  the  loggers' 
machine  shop. 

NARROW   GAUGE 

When  light  rails  are  employed,  the  same  type  of  car  as  de- 
scribed for  the  stringer-road  (page  247)  is  often  used.  When  a 
35-  or  40-pound  rail  is  in  use  a  heavier  car  is  desirable.  The  main 
features  are  similar  to  the  8-wheel  stringer-road  truck  mentioned, 
but  they  are  built  heavier  to  secure  a  capacity  of  from  1500  to 
3000  feet,  log  scale. 

BROAD    GAUGE 

Three  types  of  cars  are  in  use  on  broad  gauge  roads,  namely, 
flat  cars,  skeleton  cars,  and  trucks. 

Flat  Cars.  —  These  are  seldom  purchased  by  loggers  but  are 
used  where  the  logs  are  hauled  for  a  portion  of  the  distance  over 
a  trunk  line  road.  The  latter  usually  furnishes  the  cars,  keeps 
them  in  repair,  and  provides  motive  power  when  the  cars  are  on 
its  line.  Payment  for  this  service  is  made  on  the  basis  of  the 
number  of  cars  hauled,  the  number  of  thousand  feet  of  logs 
handled,  or  a  flat  rate  per  train-mile. 

Logging  fiat  cars  may  have  special  rails  laid  on  the  car  floor 
on  which  log  loaders  travel,  and  also  wooden  or  metal  bunks  to 
raise  the  logs  off  the  car  floor. 

Standard  40-foot  flat  cars  fully  equipped  cost  from  $850 
to  $925. 

Logs  are  held  on  flat  cars  by  stakes  or  chains. 

(i)  Short  Stakes.  —  These  are  made  near  the  loading  place 
by  a  stake  cutter,  and  are  inserted  in  the  stake  pockets  on  the 


3l6  LOGGING 

car.  They  are  usually  thrown  away  at  the  unloading  point. 
If  bunk  loads  only  are  hauled  and  the  logs  do  not  occup}-  the 
entire  floor  of  the  car,  the  bunks  are  equipped  with  adjustable 
''chock  blocks,"  or  dogs,  which  are  fitted  to  the  bunk  close  to 
the  log;  or  rough  blocks  or  small  logs  may  be  inserted  between 
the  logs  and  the  stakes  to  make  the  load  solid.  Where  a  top 
load  is  put  on  a  car,  the  logs  wedge  between  those  on  the  car 
floor  and  make  a  compact  load. 

(2)  Patent  Drop  Stakes.  —  These  project  from  2  to  3  feet 
above  the  car  floor  and  are  equipped  with  safety  trip  devices  for 
use  in  unloading.  The  logs  are  seldom  bound  with  chains  unless 
the  load  is  built  high. 

(3)  Long  Stakes.  —  For  carrying  high  loads  cars  are  often 
equipped  with  stakes  from  5  to  6  feet  long,  which  are  cut  from 
saplings  or  made  from  sawed  material.  They  are  inserted  in  the 
stake  pockets,  and  after  the  greater  part  of  the  load  has  been 
placed  in  position  the  stakes  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  car  are 
bound  together  with  heavy  wire,  cable,  or  with  chains  to  prevent 
the  load  from  spreading  at  the  top.  The  remainder  of  the  load 
is  then  placed  on  top  of  the  binders.  Saphng  stakes  with  wire 
binds  are  used  where  it  is  not  feasible  to  return  stakes  and  bind- 
ing material  to  the  forest  for  further  use. 

(4)  Chains.  —  Logs  may  also  be  made  secure  with  binder 
chains.  After  the  main  body  of  the  load  has  been  placed  on  the 
car,  either  a  chain  is  passed  around  each  end  of  the  load,  or  one 
chain  may  be  passed  around  the  center.  In  the  latter  case 
corner  bind  chains  are  used  if  the  car  is  not  provided  with  stakes. 
Each  set  consists  of  two  chains,  one  of  which  is  fastened  near  the 
center,  and  the  other  to  the  outer  end  of  the  bunk.  The  first 
chain  is  about  2  feet  long  and  the  free  end  terminates  in  a  ring, 
3  or  4  inches  in  diameter.  The  second  chain  is  several  feet  long 
and  its  free  end  tenninates  in  a  grab  hook.  When  the  first  tier 
of  logs  is  loaded  on  the  car,  the  corner  binds  are  adjusted  on 
the  two  outside  logs.  This  is  accomplished  by  placing  the  long 
chain  over  the  log,  passing  the  grab  hook  and  chain  through  the 
ring  in  the  short  chain,  drawing  the  long  chain  taut  and  locking 
it  at  the  ring  with  the  grab  hook.     The  top  load  is  then  placed 


MOTIVE   POWER   AND    ROLLING    STOCK  317 

and  if  necessary  a  center  bind  placed  around  the  entire  load,  and 
one  or  more  logs  placed  on  top  of  the  chain  to  tighten  it. 

Flat  cars  are  usually  from  24  to  41  feet  long.  Those  36  feet 
and  over  in  length  will  carry  a  double  load  if  the  logs  do  not 
exceed  18  feet  in  length.  The  average  car  load,  for  medium- 
sized  logs,  is  from  4000  to  6000  feet,  with  a  maximum  of  about 
10,000  feet,  log  scale. 

Skeleton  Cars.  —  This  t^-pe  of  car  consists  of  two  pairs  of 
4-wheel  trucks  joined  together  by  a  heavy  bolster  of  oak  or  pine. 
A  heavy  bunk  from  8|  to  10  feet  long  is  placed  directly  over  each 
pair  of  trucks.  Bunks  are  approximately  11  feet  apart  on  a 
standard  length  car,  but  are  also  built  for  long  logs  with  bunk 
centers  up  to  ^^  feet  apart. 


Fig.  89.  —  A  Skeleton  Log  Car.     A  type  common  in  the  southern  pine  forests. 

Skeleton  car  bunks  are  equipped  with  a  variety  of  stakes  and 
"chocks"  for  preventing  the  bottom  tier  of  logs  from  rolling  off. 

One  end  of  each  bunk  is  often  provided  with  bunk  spikes, 
bolted  to  or  driven  into  the  wood  while  the  other  end  is  equipped 
with  a  chock  or  dog,  which  projects  above  the  bunk  when  in  use, 
but  which  may  be  dropped  below  the  bunk  level  by  means  of  a 
rod  operated  from  the  opposite  side  when  the  car  is  ready  to 
unload.  The  load  is  often  fastened  with  a  single  ''top  bind" 
chain  passed  around  the  center  of  the  load. 

Cars  are  frequently  equipped  with  patent  drop  stakes,  which 
project  from  18  to  24  inches  above  the  bunk  and  are  held  in 
place  by  means  of  chains  or  bands,  which  may  be  loosened  by 
a  rod  manipulated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  car.     Drop  stakes 


3l8  LOGGING 

are  useful  where  small  and  medium-sized  logs  are  handled. 
They  also  obviate  the  use  of  binding  chains.  Some  operators 
use  round  stakes  without  attachments. 

In  handling  small  and  medium-sized  logs  the  loads  are  some- 
times built  up  square  and  the  logs  are  held  by  several  sets  of 
binding  chains  and  often  by  a  top  bind  chain.  Logs  are  loaded 
in  this  manner  by  power  loaders  and  a  falsework  is  used  on  the 
side  opposite  the  skidway,  against  which  the  loads  can  be  built 
and  held  in  position  until  binding  chains  can  be  placed. 

Skeleton  cars  are  equipped  either  with  hand  or  air  brakes, 
and  usually  with  pin  couplers.  They  range  in  weight  from 
6900  to  18,500  pounds  each  and  have  a  rated  carrying  capacity 
of  from  30,000  to  80,000  pounds.  They  will  carry  from  1600  to 
10,000  feet,  log  scale.  The  heavier-weight  cars  are  employed 
exclusively  for  the  heavy  timber  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Skeleton  cars  combine  lightness  with  a  maximum  carrying 
capacity,  are  reasonable  in  initial  cost,  and  are  the  cheapest 
form  of  car  to  maintain. 

Trucks.  —  These  are  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  are  espe- 
cially adapted  for  long  logs. 

They  consist  of  two  pairs  of  wheels  on  which  is  mounted  a 
steel  frame.  A  steel  or  wood  swivel  bunk,  9  or  10  feet  long,  is 
mounted  on  the  frame  above  and  midway  between  the  pairs  of 
wheels.  The  bunk  is  armed  either  with  steel  spikes  or  with  a 
long  sharp  strip  of  steel  which  prevents  the  logs  from  slipping 
forward  or  backward. 

Trucks  are  equipped  with  hand  or  air  brakes;  pin  or  auto- 
matic couplers;  patent  stakes  or  "chock  blocks"  for  holding 
the  bunk  load  in  place;  and  chains  for  binding  the  load.  They 
are  built  in  a  high  and  a  low  type,  the  former  carrying  the  heav- 
ier loads.  They  are  in  common  use  on  roads  operated  by 
loggers,  but  are  seldom  operated  on  trunk  lines  since  they  are 
averse  to  handling  them. 

Logs  of  approximately  equal  lengths  are  selected  for  a  given 
load,  and  a  truck  is  required  under  each  end  of  the  logs  which 
are  chained  to  the  bunks.  The  rear  truck  under  one  log  and 
the  forward  truck  under  the  following  log  are  coupled  together. 


MOTIVE   POWER  AND   ROLLING   STOCK  319 

The  weight  of  the  logs  may  be  sufficient  to  hold  them  firmly  on 
the  bunk  without  the  use  of  chains;  however,  if  the  train  is  long 
and  the  strain  is  severe,  chains  are  used.  Where  the  cars  are 
equipped  with  air  brakes,  extension  air-brake  hose  is  adjusted 
under  the  log  or  logs  between  the  two  trucks,  and  is  held  in 
place  by  chain  or  rope  attachments  placed  around  one  of  the 
logs. 

Trucks  weigh  from  10,600  to  13,500  pounds  each  and  have  a 
rated  carrying  capacity  of  from  50,000  to  75,000  pounds. 


Fig.  90.  —  A  Log  Truck  of  the  Type  used  in  the  Pacific  Coast  Forests. 

In  practice  low  trucks  seldom  carry  more  than  5000  feet  and 
high  trucks  7500  feet,  log  scale. 

ROLLING    STOCK   AND    MOTIVE    POWER   EQUIPMENT 

The  number  of  logging  cars  required  on  a  given  operation  is 
dependent  on 

(i)  The  amount  of  timber  handled  daily 

(2)  Capacity  of  the  individual  cars. 

(3)  The  average  number  of  cars  hauled  per  train  load. 

(4)  Manner  of  loading  and  handling  cars  in  the  woods.  When 
loading  is  concentrated  in  one  or  a  few  places,  fewer  cars  are 
required  than  where  loading  is  done  at  various  points. 

(5)  Manner  of  handling  cars  at  the  destination.  If  the  train 
crew  unloads  the  cars  on  arrival  at  destination,  the  number  of 
cars  required  is  less  than  where  the  cars  are  left  to  be  unloaded 
while  the  engine  returns  to  the  woods  for  another  train  load. 

(6)  The  distance  that  the  cars  must  be  hauled.  On  long 
hauls  a  maximum  number  of  cars  are  on  the  road  to  or  from  the 


320  LOGGING 

mill;  while  on  a  short  haul  the  number  is  less,  because  of  the 
short  time  required  to  make  a  round  trip.  The  requirements 
for  a  large  operation  having  an  8-  or  lo-mile  haul  cannot  be  met 
unless  the  number  of  log  cars  available  is  equal  to  twice  the 
number  of  loaded  cars  hauled  daily. 

The  equipment  used  by  a  large  white-pine  logging  company 
operating  14  miles  of  narrow-gauge  main-line  and  from  2  to  4 
miles  of  spurs,  and  delivering  daily  from  200,000  to  210,000  feet, 
log  scale,  at  the  mill  was  as  follows: 

154  Skeleton  logging  cars  (24  feet  long,  bunks  8  feet  wide,  10  feet  center  to 

center),  3000  feet,  log  scale,  capacity. 
2  Cabooses  (i  for  the  main  line  and  i  for  the  construction  train). 
2  Box  cars  for  hauling  supplies  to  camp. 
2  Flat  cars  for  the  construction  train. 
2  Water  tank  cars  for  hauling  the  camp  water  supply. 

Thirty-five  cars  were  loaded  at  skidways  each  morning  and 
each  afternoon,  making  a  total  of  seventy  cars  daily.  The  re- 
mainder were  on  the  road  or  in  the  repair  shop. 

Three  locomotives  only  were  employed  on  this  road,  two  for 
hauling  and  one  for  road  construction  work.  One  of  them,  a 
60-ton  rod  engine,  hauled  only  on  the  main  line,  while  a  55-ton 
Shay  geared  locomotive  hauled  on  the  spurs  and  pulled  a  train 
for  7  miles  on  the  main  line  each  morning  and  night.  A  35-ton 
Shay  was  used  exclusively  for  construction  work  and  for  hauling 
water  for  the  camp. 

A  logger  in  the  Missouri  shortleaf  pine  region,  operating  35  miles 
of  standard-gauge  main  line  and  from  15  to  20  miles  of  spurs,  used 
the  following  equipment  to  handle  125,000  feet  daily  (90  cars) 

316  Skeleton  log  cars,  (20  feet  long;  bunks  10  feet  wide,  12  feet  center  to  center). 

2  Cabooses,  (i  for  the  main  line  and  i  for  the  loading  crew). 

2  Tank  cars  for  hauling  water  for  the  camp. 

2  Flat  cars  (i  for  the  construction  crew  and  i  for  the  main-line  train). 

I  Mule  car  for  transporting  the  loading-crew  animals. 

Seven  rod  locomotives  of  the  following  weights  were  used: 

1 24-ton 

1 36-ton 

1 38-ton 

2 44-ton 

1 48-ton 

1 50-ton 


MOTIVE   POWER   AND    ROLLING    STOCK  32 1 

Five  engines  were  in  constant  use  in  hauling  on  the  main  line 
and  spurs;  one  locomotive  was  used  by  the  loading  crew  and 
construction  train;   and  one  was  held  in  reserve. 

An  Alabama  longleaf-pine  operation  with  24  miles  of  main 
line,  and  from  5  to  6  miles  of  spur  used  fifty-three  forty-foot  flat 
cars  to  haul  daily  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  cars  of  logs  (70,000 
to  90,000  feet,  log  scale).  These  cars  had  a  rated  capacity  of 
60,000  pounds  and  each  carried  from  2500  to  3500  feet,  log  scale. 

The  logs  which  were  hauled  6  miles  over  a  trunk-fine  rail- 
road, were  loaded  on  cars  provided  and  kept  in  repair  by  the 
trunk-line  railroad  which  also  furnished  one  65-ton  rod  engine 
for  use  on  its  track. 

The  logging  company  provided  one  54-ton  rod,  one  40-ton 
rod,  and  three  Shay  locomotives  of  the  following  weights,  28, 
32,  and  55  tons.  The  rod  engines  were  used  on  the  18  miles  of 
main-line  logging  road,  while  the  32-  and  55-ton  Shays  were  used 
on  the  spurs,  and  the  28-ton  Shay  on  the  construction  train. 

On  a  western  operation  where  200,000  feet  were  hauled  daily 
over  a  3-mile  main  line  with  a  5  per  cent  grade  and  many  curves, 
a  55-ton  Heisler  was  used  on  the  main  line  and  a  35-ton  Heisler 
on  the  3I  miles  of  spurs.  Forty  40-foot  flat  cars  were  required 
to  handle  the  output. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO   CHAPTER   XX 

Earle,  Robert  T.:  Adaptability  of  the  G>psy  Locomotive  for  Logging  Pur- 
poses.    The  Timberman,  Portland,  Oregon,  August,  1910,  pp.  34-35. 

Engineer  Field  IManual,  Parts  I-VI.  Professional  Papers,  No.  29.  Corps 
of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army.  Third  (revised)  Edition,  Washington,  D.  C,  1909, 
pp.  307-325. 

Evans,  W.  P.:  The  Mallet  Locomotive  in  the  Field  of  Logging  Operations. 
The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  61-64. 

Ives,  J.  F.:  Utilization  of  Compressed  Air  on  Logging  Trucks.  The  Timber- 
man, August,  19 ID,  p.  60. 

Ives,  J.  F.:  Fuel  Oil  as  a  Substitute  for  Wood  and  Coal  in  Logging.  The 
Timberman,  August,  1909,  p.  39. 

Harp,  C.  A.:  The  Gasohne  Locomotive  and  its  Availability  for  Logging  Roads. 
The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  57-5S. 

Russell,  C.  W.:  Utilization  of  Air  on  Logging  Trucks.  The  Timberman, 
August,  1910,  p.  58. 

TuRNEY,  Harry:  Adjustable  Air-brake  Equipment  for  the  Control  of  De- 
tached Trucks.     The  Timberman,  August,  191 2,  p.  54. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
LOADING   AND   UNLOADING   CARS 

LOADING    CARS 

The  Crosshaul.  —  One  of  the  early  methods  of  loading  cars 
was  by  means  of  the  crosshaul  (page  141).  A  crew  of  five  men 
and  a  team  were  required  and  the  daily  output  did  not  exceed 
40,000  feet.     On  large  operations  this  method  is  too  slow,  al- 


J**i. 


m-^- 


^^.Km^ 


Fig.  91.- 


Pholograph  by  C. 

Loading  Log  Cars  with  the  Crosshaul.     IMissouri. 


though  it  is  still  employed  by  loggers  who  have  a  small  daily 
output.  The  cost  of  loading  by  this  method  ranges  from  25 
to  35  cents  per  thousand  feet. 

Power  Loaders.  —  One  of  the  first  successful  power  loaders 
was  put  on  the  market  in  1885  and  since  that  time  many  forms 
have  been  brought  out,  which  differ  in  the  manner  of  locomo- 

322 


LOADING  AND   UNLOADING  CARS 


323 


tion,  character  of  booms,  and  other  details  to  meet  special 
requirements.    They  are  used  for  loading  flat  or  skeleton  cars. 

The  main  features  of  a  power  loader  are  a  steam  hoisting- 
engine  and  drums  and  an  upright  boiler.  These  are  mounted 
on  a  truck  provided  with  some  appliance  for  transporting  itself, 
and  also  carrying  a  rigid  or  swinging  loading  boom.  Gasoline 
engines  have  recently  been  substituted  for  steam  on  some  pat- 
terns, but  they  are  not  in  extensive  use. 

Loaders  are  built  with  a  short  swinging-base  control  boom,  a 
long  swinging  end-control  boom,  or  with  a  rigid  boom.  The 
first  two  types  are  adapted  for  loading  on  poor  track,  because 
the  logs  can  be  centered  on  the  car  and  less  manual  labor  is  re- 
quired to  build  the  load  securely.  They  also  are  desirable 
where  the  logs  are  scattered.  Short  booms  are  not  adapted  for 
handling  long  lengths.  Rigid  booms  are  used  to  advantage  on 
good  track  where  the  logs  are  abundant  and  fairly  well  decked. 

There  are  two  types  of  loaders. 

(i)  Loaders  operating  from  log  cars.  The  Barnhart,  Model 
C  American  and  the  Rapid  loaders  are  the  best  illustrations  of 
this  type. 

(2)  Loaders  operating  from  the  main  railroad  track.  The 
Decker,  McGiffert,  Surry  Parker,  American  Models  D  and  E, 
and  the  Browning  are  the  more  common  machines  of  this  type. 

An  advantage  of  the  Decker  and  McGiffert  loaders  is  that 
the  loader  may  remain  in  one  place  until  all  logs  are  loaded, 
while  loaders  of  the  first  type  must  change  their  base  for  every 
car  unless  a  locomotive  is  in  attendance  to  move  the  train  as 
desired. 

(a)  Barnhart.  —  This  style  of  loader  requires  either  perma- 
nent or  temporary  tracks  on  the  log  car  over  which  the  loader 
passes.  Where  permanent  track  is  used,  the  rails  are  laid  only 
the  length  of  the  car  bed,  because  if  they  were  sufficiently  long 
to  permit  the  loader  to  span  the  gap  between  cars  they  would 
interfere  when  the  train  rounded  sharp  curves.  The  space  be- 
tween the  rails  on  each  car  is  spanned  with  two  fl -shaped  irons 
placed  on  the  car  rails  which  can  be  removed  as  soon  as  the 
loader  has  passed  over  the  gap.     Temporary  tracks  are  made  in 


324 


LOGGING 


three  sections.  The  loader  rests  on  one  section,  another  spans 
the  gap  between  the  two  cars  and  the  third  rests  on  the  empty 
car  in  the  rear  of  the  machine.  As  the  loader  proceeds  along 
the  train  the  tracks  are  picked  up  by  the  loader  and  moved 
behind  it. 

The  engine,  drums,  booms,  and  all  working  parts  are  mounted 
on  a  steel  frame  v/hich  is  pivoted  to  a  truck  frame  carrying 
eight  pairs  of  trucks,  with  wheels  lo  inches  in  diameter.  The 
loader  can  revolve  in  a  complete  circle  by  means  of  a  geared 
wheel  attached  to  the  truck  frame,  into  which  mesh  two  pinions 


Fig.  92.  —  A  ]\Iodel  C  American  Log  Loader. 

which  are  driven  by  a  double  rotating  engine.  One  form  of 
this  loader  uses  a  chain  control  for  the  rotary  movement.  The 
weight  of  the  loader  is  borne  on  five  cone-shaped  rollers  attached 
to  the  truck  frame. 

The  loader  propels  itself  from  one  car  to  another  by  means  of 
a  cable  passed  around  a  drum  on  the  loader,  with  the  free  end 
attached  by  a  hook  to  one  of  the  cars  in  the  rear. 

A  feature  of  this  loader  is  a  slack  pulling  device  which  consists 
of  a  pair  of  friction  sheaves  mounted  on  the  boom  and  driven  by 
a  belt.     The  power  is  controlled  by  a  hand  lever. 

Two  sizes  of  loaders  are  made,  the  smaller,  No.  10,  having 


LOADING   AND   UNLOADING   CARS 


325 


chain  control,  an  oak  boom  25  feet  long,  a  double  6|-  by  S-inch 
hoisting  engine  with  governor  control  and  a  36-  by  96-inch  verti- 
cal boiler.  The  cost  of  this  loader  is  $3500  f.o.b.,  Marion,  Ohio. 
The  No.  12  loader  has  a  steel  boom  23  feet  9  inches  long,  gear 
and  pinion  rotary  control,  double  hoisting  engines  with  7^-  by 
8-inch  cylinders,  controlled  by  a  balanced  throttle,  and  a  50-  by 
82-inch  vertical  boiler.  The  pull  at  the  tongs  on  this  machine 
is  claimed  to  be  from  9  to  10  tons.  The  cost  of  a  loader  of  this 
type  is  S4700  f.o.b.,  Marion,  Ohio. 


Fig.  93.  —  The  Rapid  Log  Loader. 


The  Barnhart,  though  a  fast  machine,  is  more  expensive  to 
keep  in  repair  than  some  of  the  other  t^-pes  of  loaders,  and 
requires  skillful  labor  to  secure  the  maximum  output.  Many 
loggers  do  not  regard  it  with  favor  for  use  on  narrow-gauge  roads. 
The  maximum  log  that  it  can  handle  is  one  containing  about 
1500  feet  log  scale. 

(b)  Model  C  American.  —  This  type  of  loader  is  similar  in 
character  and  operation  to  the  Barnhart.  It  runs  on  temporary 
tracks  and  uses  the  geared  circle  for  rotating  the  machine.  It 
is  one  of  the  cheapest  loaders  to  keep  in  repair  and  will  handle 
a  log  containing  2000  feet  log  scale. 


326 


LOGGING 


It  costs  from  $4000  to  $4500  depending  on  the  number  and 
tharacter  of  special  attachments. 

(c)  Rapid.  —  The  Rapid  loader  is  a  stiff  wooden  boom 
machine,  with  an  upright  boiler  and  double  hoisting  engine. 
These  are  mounted  on  a  pair  of  steel  runners  on  which  the  loader 
slides  from  car  to  car.  Power  for  moving  itself  is  furnished  by 
a  cable  and  drum.  Rapid  loaders  are  sometimes  mounted  on  a 
heavy  pair  of  two-sleds  for  sled  loading.  It  is  adapted  for  light 
work. 


Fig.  94.  —  A  Decker  Log  Loader. 

{d)  Model  D  American.  —  This  loader  is  used  only  where  light 
equipment  is  employed  because  it  is  necessary  for  the  loader  to 
lift  the  empty  car  from  the  track  in  the  rear  to  the  front,  or  vice 
versa.  Model  E  is  similar  in  character  but  has  eight  wheels 
on  the  trucks  and  is  adapted  for  poor  track.  Both  D  and 
E  can  move  under  their  own  power.  Model  D  costs  about 
$4900. 

{e)  Decker.  —  The  frame  of  this  loader  consists  of  two  decks. 
The  upper  one  is  supported  by  steel  posts  which  rest  on  bolsters 
placed  directly  over  the  trucks  on  which  the  loader  is  mounted. 
This  deck  carries  the  boiler,  engine,  and  other  working  parts  of 
the  machine,  while  the  lower  deck  is  on  a  level  with  the  bolsters 


LOADING    AND   UNLOADING   CARS 


327 


and  carries  a  portable  track  with  hinged  end  sections  which  may 
be  lowered  onto  the  rails  and  thus  provide  a  continuous  track 
through  the  loader. 

In  operation  a  train  of  empties  is  pushed  out  to  the  loader  and 
backed  through  it  until  the  last  car  comes  in  proper  position, 
under  the  boom,  for  loading.  As  other  empty  cars  are  required 
a  cable  connected  to  a  drum  is  run  through  the  machine  and  is 
attached  to  the  draw  bar  of  the  first  empty  car.  This  car 
is  then  hauled  through  the  loader,  pushing  the  loaded  car  forward 


Fig.  95.  —  A  McGiffert  Log  Loader. 

until  the  succeeding  empty  one  is  in  position  for  loading.  The 
work  proceeds  in  this  manner  until  the  skidway  has  been  emptied. 

The  Decker  can  travel  under  its  own  power  from  one  point  to 
another,  and  can  switch  cars  if  necessary,  although  the  latter  is 
not  economical  if  a  locomotive  is  available.  It  is  recommended 
for  narrow-gauge  steel  and  wooden  railroads.  The  Decker 
loader  costs  from  $4500  to  $6000. 

(/)  McGiffert.  —  This  loader  is  similar  in  operation  to  the 
Decker.  It  has  one  elevated  deck  which  carries  the  working 
parts  and  when  the  machine  is  loading  the  frame  is  supported  on 
four  corner  posts  or  ''spuds"  which  are  curved  in  toward  the 


328  LOGGING 

lower  extremities.  Each  post  ends  in  a  broad  shoe  which  rests  on 
the  crossties  outside  of  the  rail.  The  empty  cars  pass  under  the 
deck,  traveling  on  the  main  track.  The  loader  is  equipped  with 
a  pair  of  trucks  at  both  the  forward  and  the  rear  end,  on  which 
the  loader  travels.  The  frames  to  which  these  trucks  are  at- 
tached and  the  trucks  themselves  are  so  hung  on  a  shaft  under 
the  floor  of  the  deck  that  during  the  loading  operation  they  may 
be  brought  to  a  horizontal  position  under  the  loader.  The 
machine  is  then  supported  on  the  ties  by  the  spuds.  When  ready 
to  move,  the  weight  of  the  loader  is  lifted  from  the  spuds  by 
bringing  the  truck  frames  to  a  vertical  position  by  means  of 
cables  and  other  mechanism. '  This  raises  the  loader  off  the  spuds 
ready  for  a  change  of  base.  Power  is  transmitted  to  the  axles 
of  the  trucks  by  means  of  sprocket  chains. 

This  machine  is  adapted  for  longer  logs  and  wider-gauge  roads 
than  the  Decker,  because  of  the  greater  space  between  the  rail 
and  the  deck. 

The  McGiffert  loader  costs  from  $4500  to  $6000. 

(g)  Surry  Parker.  —  This  loader  embodies  the  same  general 
principles  as  the  two  loaders  previously  mentioned,  having  the 
upper  deck  high  enough  to  permit  loaded  flat  cars  to  run  under 
it.  An  early  type  was  built  without  a  device  for  transporting 
itself,  being  carried  about  on  a  fiat  car.  The  modern  type  of 
machine,  however,  is  portable,  the  power  being  transferred  from 
the  engines  to  the  axles  by  a  chain  drive. 

Capacity.  —  The  output  per  day  of  a  given  type  of  loader  is 
dependent  largely  on  the  skill  of  the  operator  and  the  loading 
crew,  provided  logs  are  at  hand  and  the  supply  of  empty  cars  is 
adequate.  The  daily  output  may  be  as  low  as  from  30,000  to 
40,000  feet  and  again  may  rise  to  nearly  300,000  feet.  For  short 
logs  the  swinging-boom  base-control  type  of  loader  is  the  more 
active  and  under  average  conditions  may  load  from  100,000  to 
130,000  feet  daily. 

Cost  of  Operation.  — The  cost  of  operation  per  thousand  feet, 
log  scale,  depends  on  the  daily  output,  the  wage  scale  of  the  region, 
and  the  price  of  fuel.  The  general  range  is  from  18  to  35  cents 
per  thousand  feet. 


LOADING  AND   UNLOADING  CARS  329 

SPECIAL    LOADING    DEVICES 

A  number  of  special  devices  are  used  for  loading  large  logs  on 
cars,  especially  in  the  Pacific  Coast  region. 

The  ^' Gin- pole.'''  —  This  is  a  modification  of  the  crosshaul,  a 
yarding  engine  being  substituted  for  horses.  A  f-inch  loading 
cable  passes  through  a  block  attached  to  a  mast  or  gin-pole 
about  20  feet  long,  which  is  set  in  the  ground  on  the  side  of  the 
track  opposite  the  landing,  and  is  thoroughly  braced  with  guy 
ropes. 

The  logs  are  loaded  from  a  landing  along  the  railroad  to  which 
logs  are  brought  by  a  yarding  engine,  road  engine,  or  by  a  loco- 
motive. Landings  are  built  level  with  the  car  bunks  and  are 
made  from  40  to  300  feet  long,  but  they  usually  are  about  120 
feet  long  to  accommodate  two  60-foot  logs.  They  may  consist 
of  a  number  of  skids  from  15  to  18  inches  in  diameter,  placed 
about  6  feet  apart  at  right  angles  to  the  railroad  track,  and 
supported  on  cribwork;  or  a  large  log  may  be  placed  on  the 
fore  part  of  the  landing  parallel  and  next  to  the  track  and 
from  this  the  main  skids  supported  on  a  cribwork  run  at  right 
angles.  The  rear  of  the  landing  may  be  at  a  lower  level  than  the 
part  nearest  the  track. 

Where  top  loads  are  put  on  cars  a  "lead  log"  is  placed  parallel 
to  the  tracks  on  the  side  opposite  the  landing.  It  projects 
slightly  above  the  top  of  the  car  bunks  and  in  order  that  the 
direction  of  pull  may  always  be  at  right  angles  the  loading  cable 
is  made  to  pass  through  the  lead  blocks  which  are  attached  to 
this  log.  Where  a  lead  log  is  not  used  it  is  customary  to  set  up- 
right posts  20  feet  apart  along  the  track  opposite  the  landing. 
These  are  not  as  convenient  as  the  former  because  their  use 
makes  it  necessary  for  the  engineer  of  the  road  engine  to  always 
leave  the  logs  opposite  them. 

The  loading  cable  passes  from  the  drum  on  the  road  engine, 
or  from  a  special  loading  engine  through  a  block  at  the  peak  of 
the  gin-pole,  then  through  the  lead  blocks,  then  across  the  car 
and  over  and  under  the  center  or  end  of  the  log  to  be  loaded. 
The  cable  is  then  brought  forward  and  the  grab  hook  on  the  end 


330  LOGGING 

of  the  cable  is  caught  in  the  edge  of  the  landing,  or  on  the  car 
bunk.  By  winding  in  the  cable  on  the  drum  the  log  is  rolled 
up  the  landing  and  onto  the  car. 

A  modification  of  this  device  has  been  brought  out  for  more 
rapid  work  and  for  handling  long  logs.  It  consists  of  a  loading 
engine  similar  in  type  to  the  yarding  engines  and  two  gin-poles 
and  loading  lines  instead  of  one.  The  cables  are  attached  to 
the  logs  by  means  of  tongs  or  slings.  Each  line  may  be  oper- 
ated independently  or  the  two  may  be  operated  in  unison.^ 

Loading  with  Jacks  or  Peavies.  —  This  method  is  used  where 
logs  are  loaded  by  hand  and  only  bunk  loads  are  placed  on  the 
cars,  peavies  being  employed  for  loading  small  logs  and  jacks 
for  large  ones. 

Landings  with  a  slight  pitch  toward  the  track  are  used  when 
loading  by  this  method.  The  cars  are  spotted  opposite  the  load- 
ing point  and  the  logs  are  put  into  position  to  roll  onto  the  car 
by  moving  one  end  or  the  other  of  the  log  with  jacks.  When 
the  log  is  in  position  the  blocks  holding  it  are  released  and  the 
log  allowed  to  roll  by  gravity  toward  the  car.  If  it  is  a  small 
log  it  may  be  allowed  to  roll  directly  onto  the  car,  but  if  it  is  a 
large  one  it  is  stopped  on  the  edge  of  the  landing  by  chock  blocks 
and  then  gradually  rolled  onto  the  car  bunks.  Logs  are  pre- 
vented from  rolling  off  the  far  side  of  the  car  by  chock  blocks 
fastened  to  the  car  bunk.  When  necessary  the  distance  between 
the  car  bunk  and  the  edge  of  the  landing  may  be  spanned  by  a 
skid  3  or  4  feet  long  and  6  or  8  inches  in  diameter.  Four  men 
with  jacks  can  load  about  100,000  feet  daily. 

Loading  Logs  from  Water  Storage.  —  Landings  may  be  replaced 
by  artificial  ponds  in  which  the  logs  are  dumped  when  brought 
in  by  the  road  engine. 

A  scheme  sometimes  employed  is  to  run  a  car  into  the  pond 
until  it  is  submerged,  when  a  bunk  load  is  floated  in  position  over 
the  car,  which  is  then  pulled  out  loaded. 

Another  method  consists  in  the  use  of  a  modified  crosshaul. 
A  lead  log  is  placed  at  the  height  of  the  car  bunk  on  the  loading 
side  of  the  railroad  track,  and  from  it  skids  slope  down  to  the 

1  The  Timberman,  December,  19 10,  p.  t^^. 


LOADING   AND   UNLOADING  CARS  33 1 

bed  of  the  pond.  Two  cables  are  attached  to  the  lead  log  at  a 
distance  apart  of  approximately  20  feet,  the  free  ends  being 
fastened  to  a  ring,  thus  forming  a  "parbuckle."  The  loading 
line  which  has  a  hook  on  its  free  end,  passes  from  the  engine 
over  the  load  and  is  caught  in  the  ring  of  the  parbuckle.  The 
latter  is  dropped  down  in  the  water  and  men  standing  on  a 
platform  a  few  feet  from  the  edge  of  the  pond  float  logs  over  it. 
The  loading  line  is  then  reeled  in  on  the  loading  drum  and  the 
logs  are  rolled  up  the  rollway  and  onto  the  edge  of  the  car  bunk. 

They  are  drawn  to  the  far  side  of  the  car  by  passing  the 
loading  cable  over  and  under  the  log  and  catching  a  swamp 
hook  on  the  far  side  of  the  car  bunk.  The  tightening  of  the 
cable  rolls  the  log  in  the  desired  direction.  The  loading  line 
and  parbuckle  are  returned  to  the  pond  men  by  a  haul  back 
line.  From  three  to  four  men  can  load  100,000  feet  per  day, 
in  this  manner. 

Jack  Works.  —  Where  logs  are  to  be  raised  to  a  considerable 
height  as  from  a  river  or  a  large  pond  an  outfit  called  a  "jack 
works"  is  employed.  This  method  has  been  used  both  in  the 
South  and  in  the  Northeast,  where  medium-sized  logs  are  han- 
dled. 

A  jack  works  is  a  long  narrow  platform  built  at  a  sufiicient 
height  above  ground  to  permit  the  construction  of  a  sloping 
dock  on  the  side  next  to  the  loading  tracks,  the  base  of  which  is 
flush  with  the  car  bunks.  The  loading  tracks  on  which  the  log 
cars  are  "spotted"  are  placed  alongside  the  dock.  The  length 
of  the  platform  is  governed  by  the  number  of  cars  to  be  loaded 
and  the  switching  facilities.  If  provision  is  made  for  moving 
cars  by  gravity  and  the  logs  are  of  fairly  even  length  so  that 
any  of  them  will  go  on  a  given  car,  the  platform  need  only  be 
long  enough  to  handle  the  longest  logs.  When  logs  must  be 
sorted  before  loading  and  when  many  cars  must  be  spotted  at 
one  time  the  platform  should  be  of  sufficient  length  to  accommo- 
date the  maximum  number  of  cars. 

A  shallow  trough  runs  the  entire  length  of  the  platform. 
In  it  an  endless  chain  travels  to  which  log  dogs  are  attached 
at  approximately  8-foot  intervals.     A  similar  trough  and  chain 


332 


LOGGING 


serve  to  carry  the  logs  from  the  water  to  the  platform  along 
which  they  are  carried  until  they  are  rolled  onto  the  dock 
below.  The  chains  are  driven  either  by  a  steam,  or  gasoline 
engine.  The  logs  are  loaded  on  cars  chiefly  by  gravity.  Skids 
are  placed  from  the  docks  to  the  load  as  the  latter  is  built  up, 
and  the  top  logs  are  rolled  on  to  ^he  load  with  cant  hooks. 

UNLOADING   LOG   CARS 

The  expeditious  unloading  of  log  cars  is  an  important  factor 
in  train  operations  because  it  reduces  the  amount  of  rolling  stock 
required.  Logs  are  generally  stored  in  ponds,  streams,  or  on 
storage  skids,  but  at  hardwoods  plants  and  pulp  mills  they  are 
occasionally  placed  in  large  piles. 


LX.  .$          M 

T 

Photograph  by  J.U.  Fahrcnbach. 
Fig.  96.  —A  Rolhvay  at  the  :\IilI  Pond.     Texas. 


Rollways.  —  Where  water  storage  is  used  the  track  is  built 
along  the  bank  of  the  stream  or  pond,  or  else  extended  over  the 
water  on  piling.  In  the  former  case  it  is  necessary  to  construct 
an  inclined  rollway  over  which  the  logs  may  be  rolled  into  the 


LOADING  AND   UNLOADING  CARS  333 

water.  This  consists  of  a  framework  composed  of  three  parallel 
sets  of  stringers,  spaced  8  feet  apart,  which  extend  along  the 
water's  edge  for  from  400  to  600  feet.  The  outer  stringer  projects 
over  the  water's  edge  and  is  supported  on  piling  or  on  timbers 
that  rest  on  solid  bottom,  while  the  other  stringers  are  supported 
on  round  or  square  uprights  placed  from  4  to  6  feet  apart. 
Heavy  round  or  square  timbers,  often  shod  with  railroad  iron, 
are  placed  on  top  of  and  at  right  angles  to  the  stringers,  and  serve 
as  a  bed  over  which  the  logs  are  rolled.  These  timbers  are 
spaced  from  4  to  6  feet  apart  on  the  stringers  and  have  a  pitch 
of  from  15  to  25  degrees.  The  upper  ends  are  placed  level  with 
the  top  of  the  car  bunks. 

When  the  water  is  shallow  near  the  rollway,  the  logs  are 
shunted  into  deep  water  by  sloping  skids  which  extend  from  the 
lower  stringer  to  the  bed  of  the  pond  or  stream. 

The  railroad  track  is  laid  parallel  with  the  rollway  and  close 
enough  so  that  the  top  of  the  car  bunks  will  be  about  6  inches 
distant.  To  facilitate  unloading,  the  outer  rail  is  elevated  from 
12  to  15  inches  thus  throwing  the  side  of  the  car  next  the  rollway 
at  a  lower  level.  Many  of  the  logs  will  roll  from  the  car  into  the 
pond  when  the  car  stakes  are  removed,  the  dogs  on  the  car  bunks 
lowered,  or  the  binding  chains  loosened.  The  remainder  of  the 
logs  are  rolled  off  the  car  by  means  of  cant  hooks  or  peavies. 
This  is  one  of  the  simplest  methods  and  is  widely  used  in  the 
Lake  States  and  southern  yellow  pine  region  where  the  timber  is 
of  medium  size. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  where  logs  are  often  unloaded  into  tide- 
water and  rafted,  the  track  is  built  on  piling  either  over  the 
water  or  else  along  the  side  of  the  bank.  The  structure  is  long 
enough  to  accomodate  twenty  cars  or  more.  Some  protection 
must  be  given  the  piling  supporting  the  track  and  when  the 
trestle  is  in  deep  water  this  is  accomplished  by  driving  a  pile 
at  the  end  of  each  tie.  These  piles  are  cut  off  about  two  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  track  and  are  beveled  on  top  to  shunt 
off  the  falling  logs.  x\n  additional  row  of  piles  is  sometimes 
driven  just  outside  the  first  one  and  beveled  off  in  a  similar 
manner.     When  the  trestle  is  located  on  land,  a  slanting  roll- 


334  LOGGING 

way  must  be  built  out  far  enough  to  carry  the  logs  into  deep 
water. 

The  outer  rail  of  the  track  is  elevated  from  8  to  12  inches, 
either  by  leaving  the  outer  legs  of  the  trestle  longer,  or  by  elevat- 
ing the  outer  ends  of  the  crossties  by  means  of  blocking. 

When  car  stakes  are  used  the  practice  is  either  to  knock  them 
out  with  a  maul,  or  to  cut  them  off  with  an  ax.  Logs  often  will 
roll  ofif  the  cars  unaided,  but  when  assistance  is  required,  jacks 
are  used  for  log  trucks  and  often  for  fiats.  Power  unloaders 
of  the  character  described  on  page  336  are  in  occasional  use  for 
unloading  flats  and  skeleton  cars. 

For  dry  land  storage  at  mills,  skidways  are  built  on  one  or 
both  sides  of  the  device  used  for  conveying  logs  into  the  mill. 
The  skidways  are  wide  enough  to  hold  one  car  of  logs,  and  long 
enough  to  accomodate  the  required  number  of  cars. 

Storage  skidways  consist  of  a  series  of  parallel  skids  placed 
at  right  angles  to  the  railroad  track,  and  supported  on  timbers 
placed  on  the  ground.  The  skids  slope  toward  the  center  at  an 
angle  of  from  10  to  12  degrees  to  facilitate  handling  the  logs. 
The  outer  rail  of  the  track  is  elevated  to  aid  in  unloading. 

Power  Unloaders.  —  There  are  several  types  of  power  unloaders 
used  which  are  employed  chiefly  on  the  Pacific  Coast  where  large 
and  long  logs  are  handled.  However,  some  types  are  used  in  the 
Lake  States  and  in  the  hardwood  region. 

Swinging-boom  log  loaders  which  pick  logs  from  the  car  and 
deposit  them  on  either  side  of  the  track  are  among  the  devices 
used  where  logs  are  stored  in  piles  on  dry  ground. 

An  overhead  cableway  system,  supported  on  two  spars  from 
500  to  600  feet  apart  and  spanning  the  railroad  track  on  which  the 
logs  are  brought  in,  is  another  scheme  employed  where  logs  are 
stored  in  piles.  The  trolley  is  operated  in  a  manner  similar  to 
the  overhead  cableway  logging  system  (page  198). 

An  ingenious  device  called  a  log  dump  is  used  at  some  plants. 
One  built  in  Washington  consists  of  two  dumps  separated  by 
30  feet  of  stationary  track,  the  entire  structure  being  supported 
on  piling.^     The  platform  of  each  dump  is  40  feet  long  and 

1  The  Timberman,  August,  191 2;  p.  68. 


LOADING   AND   UNLOADING  CARS 


335 


336  LOGGING 

consists  of  four  latch  timbers  {A),  which  are  ii  feet  long  and 
a  fifth  timber  (B),  known  as  the  trip  timber,  which  is  36  feet 
long  and  of  larger  size.     The  frame  is  hung  on  a  roller  timber 

(C)  18  by  18  inches  square  and  40  feet  2  inches  long  which  rests 
on  heavy  cast-iron  sills.  The  roller  timber  is  bound  with  an 
iron  cylinder  to  facilitate  its  rotation.  This  roller  is  placed 
off-center,  the  distance  between  the  rail  on  the  land  side  and  the 
center  of  the  roller  timber  being  25  inches.     When  the  latches 

(D)  holding  the  frame  are  released  the  weight  of  the  load  will 
automatically  tip  the  frame  toward  the  brow  skid  (E)  through 
an  arc  of  15  degrees.  In  operation,  the  cars  are  run  on  the  dump, 
the  chains  holding  the  logs  on  the  cars  removed,  and  the  latches 
(D)  opened.  The  dump  then  revolves  until  the  car  bunk  rests 
on  the  brow  skid  (E).  The  majority  of  the  logs  will  roll  off, 
although  some  must  occasionally  be  started  by  means  of  a  cable 
which  passes  through  a  block  rigged  on  a  gin-pole.  The  cable 
is  pulled  by  a  locomotive.  The  dump  will  not  tip  when  the  load 
is  heaviest  on  the  land  side,  in  which  case  it  is  operated  by  prying 
up  on  the  end  of  the  trip  timber  {B).  After  the  logs  are  off  the 
car  the  dump  is  brought  to  a  horizontal  position  by  having  men 
walk  out  on  the  trip  timber  (B) . 

The  double  dump  will  handle  two  cars  of  40-foot  logs,  or  one 
car  of  long  logs  by  spotting  one  truck  on  each  track.  Three 
men  can  unload  a  car  in  two  and  one-half  minutes  and  can 
unload  350,000  feet  or  more  daily. 

The  cost  of  the  dump  was  $2000,  exclusive  of  the  value  of 
the  timber  used.  Including  the  cost  of  rebuilding  the  dump, 
the  annual  repairs  during  the  last  seven  years  have  been  $300. 

An  efficient  unloader  consists  of  a  hoisting  engine  and  two 
drums  mounted  on  a  car  equipped  with  a  rigid  boom.  The 
railroad  track  is  built  parallel  to  the  rollway  and  the  unloader 
runs  on  an  additional  track  on  the  land  side  of  the  dump.  The 
boom  is  so  placed  that  it  projects  at  right  angles  over  the  far 
edge  of  the  railroad  track.  The  unloader  can  travel  back  and 
forth  under  its  own  power  for  a  distance  of  from  500  to  600  feet, 
thus  permitting  an  entire  train  to  be  unloaded  without  moving 
the  cars.     A  f-inch  cable  passes  from  the  drums  on  the  hoisting 


LOADING   AND   UNLOADING   CARS 


337 


338  LOGGING 

engine  through  a  block  on  the  peak  of  the  boom,  down  under 
the  logs  and  the  grab  hook  is  caught  on  the  bunk  of  the  car  or 
on  the  buffer  log  of  the  rollway.  The  winding  up  of  the  cable 
crowds  the  logs  off  the  car  onto  the  rollway.  Two  other  drums 
and  cables  are  used,  one  for  raising  and  lowering  the  boom 
and  the  other  for  moving  the  unloader  back  and  forth  on  the 
track. 

Another  form  designed  to  unload  heavy  logs  from  cars  while 
the  train  is  in  motion  consists  of  two  steel  arms  17  feet  long  made 
of  channel  and  angle  iron.  The  arms  are  18  inches  wide  except 
at  the  ends,  where  they  are  made  36  inches  wide  to  give  a  broad 
surface  to  repel  the  logs.  A  heavy  casting  carrying  a  sharp 
edge  is  attached  to  the  outer  end  of  each  arm.  The  two  arms 
are  bolted  opposite  each  other  on  a  24-inch  journal,  and  are 
braced  with  a  turnbuckle.  The  arms  and  journal  are  set  on  a 
shaft  II  feet  long,  and  10  inches  in  diameter,  cut  down  to  8 
inches  where  the  journal  is  fastened  to  admit  the  attachment 
of  a  collar  with  ball  bearings.  The  shaft  is  set  in  a  concrete 
base,  high  enough  to  allow  the  arms  to  clear  the  car  bunks,  and 
far  enough  distant  so  that  when  the  arm  extends  across  the 
track  at  right  angles,  it  reaches  one  foot  beyond  the  outer  rail. 
To  unload  a  train  load  of  logs,  the  loaded  cars  are  pushed  up  to 
the  rear  of  the  unloader,  a  loader  arm  is  swung  up  against  the 
log,  and  the  train  put  in  motion.  The  sharp  edge  of  the  arm 
grips  the  log  and  as  the  train  advances  the  arm  is  turned  on  its 
axis  and  the  log  or  logs  are  gradually  shoved  off  the  car.  The 
momentum  acquired  in  performing  the  work  causes  the  arms 
to  revolve  rapidly  on  the  axis  as  soon  as  the  logs  are  dumped, 
and  the  opposite  arm  comes  in  contact  with  the  logs  on  the 
succeeding  car.  It  is  seldom  necessary  to  stop  the  train  during 
the  unloading  process.  The  average  time  consumed  in  unload- 
ing 75,000  feet  of  logs  from  15  cars  is  eight  minutes. 

An  unloader  similar  in  type  is  called  the  Hercules  Log  Un- 
loader. It  differs  mainly  in  having  one  arm  only  and  requires 
the  services  of  a  man  to  attach  the  arm  by  means  of  a  chain 
and  grab  hook  to  the  bunk  of  the  log  car  in  order  to  swing  the 
arm  across  the  track.     On  releasing  the  chain  the  arm  auto- 


LOADING   AND   UNLOADING    CARS  339 

matically  assumes  a  position  parallel  with  the  track,  ready  for 
the  following  car. 

A  satisfactory  device  used  by  a  redwood  operator  in  California 
for  unloading  logs  from  cars  consists  of  a  20-  by  28-inch  timber, 
placed  across  the  track  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  and  securely 
fixed  at  each  end  on  solid  supports.  The  base  of  the  beam  is 
about  8  inches  above  the  upper  face  of  the  car  bunk.  The 
loaded  train,  one  log  on  each  car,  is  brought  in  from  the  woods 
and  pushed  along  the  track  toward  the  unloader.  The  logs 
striking  the  slanting  timber  are  pushed  off  the  car  as  the  train 
advances.  When  half  of  the  train  has  been  unloaded  the  loco- 
motive is  uncoupled  from  the  rear  of  the  train,  run  around  and 
attached  to  the  forward  cars,  and  unloading  is  continued  until 
completed.  Thirty  thousand  feet  of  logs  can  be  unloaded  by 
this  device  in  three  minutes. 

BIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO   CHAPTER   XXI 

Anonymous:  Swinging  "Gill-poke"  Unloader.  The  Timberman,  Portland, 
Oregon,  October,  1909,  p.  23. 

EvENSON,  O.  J.:  An  Improved  Log-loading  System.  The  Timberman,  August, 
i9i2,p.  52. 

O'GoRMAN,  J.  S.:  Unloading  Log  Cars  with  a  Stationary  Rig.  The  Timber- 
man, August,  1909,  p.  48. 

O'Hearne,  James:  Tilting  Log  Dumps.  The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  pp. 
68-69. 

Van  Oesdel,  John  T.:  Cableway  Loading  System.  The  Timberman,  July, 
1911,  p.  46. 


PART  IV 
WATER  TRANSPORT 


CHAPTER  XXII 
FLOATING   AND   RAFTING 

Nearly  every  large  stream  in  the  forest  regions  of  the  United 
States  has  at  some  time  in  its  history  served  as  a  highway  down 
which  logs  and  lumber  have  been  floated  to  sawmills  and  market. 
It  is  still  the  favorite  method  of  transporting  logs  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  United  States,  but  in  many  other  regions  it  has  been 
superseded  by  railroads,  because  of  the  exhaustion  of  the  timber 
supply  near  driveable  streams,  the  extensive  logging  of  non- 
floatable  species,  and  the  increased  value  of  stumpage. 

In  the  more  recently  developed  timber  sections  of  the  Inland 
Empire  and  the  Pacific  Coast,  water  transport  early  gained  a 
foothold  but  is  now  of  secondary  importance,  except  where  logs 
are  brought  to  the  shores  of  Puget  Sound,  the  Columbia  River 
and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  then  rafted  and  towed  to  the  mill. 
In  the  Northwest  the  use  of  small  streams  for  driving  is  not 
satisfactory  because  of  the  large  diameter  of  the  logs  and  the 
long  lengths  in  which  it  is  desirable  to  bring  them  from  the 
forest. 

Logs  may  either  be  floated  singly  or  rafted.  The  former 
method  is  practiced  always  on  rough  water  and  small  streams, 
and  whenever  permissible  on  large  ones;  however,  rafting  is 
compulsory  on  navigable  streams. 

Water  transport  is  primitive,  but  it  is  a  cheap  method  of 
moving  logs  for  long  distances  where  a  low  expenditure  is 
required  for  stream  improvements  and  driving,  and  also  for 
transporting  logs  out  of  a  well-watered  region  where  otherwise  a 
large  mileage  of  expensive  logging  railroad  would  have  to  be 
constructed  to  tap  a  trunk  line. 

Water  transport  has  the  following  disadvantages: 

(i)  It  is  limited  chiefly  to  logs  which  will  float.  Softwoods 
and  hardwoods  are  often  associated  together  in  the  forest  and 

343 


344  LOGGING 

present  market  conditions  make  it  profitable  to  remove  some 
or  all  of  the  latter,  which  is  often  impossible  with  water  trans- 
port. 

(2)  It  is  dependent  on  an  abundant  rainfall  to  flood  the 
streams.  During  seasons  of  drought  it  may  be  impossible  or 
very  expensive  to  move  logs  by  water.  This  results  in  a  short 
log  supply  and  the  closing  down  or  short-time  operation  of  saw- 
mill plants.  Sawmills  in  the  northern  regions  that  are  dependent 
on  water  transportation  for  a  log  supply  can  only  run  for  six  or 
seven  months,  unless  special  provisions  are  made  for  keeping  the 
log  pond  open  during  freezing  weather.^  During  the  remainder 
of  the  year  the  plant  is  idle  and  during  this  period  the  owner 
does  not  realize  on  his  investment. 

(3)  There  is  a  heavy  loss  in  driving  logs  for  long  distances. 
Logs  of  all  species  that  have  much  sapwood  suffer  a  heavy  loss  in 
merchantable  volume  between  the  bank  and  the  mill  if  they  do 
not  reach  their  destination  during  the  season  in  which  they  were 
logged,  because  the  sapwood  is  attacked  by  insects  and  fungi. 
Basswood  logs  that  have  floated  for  a  short  period  in  water 
containing  vegetable  matter  acquire  a  peculiar  and  unpleasant 
odor  that  renders  the  lumber  from  them  unfit  for  sugar  barrel 
cooperage  and  packages  for  other  commodities  that  are  easily 
tainted. 

The  heartwood  of  stranded  logs,  especially  of  hardwoods, 
suffers  from  checks  and  splits  when  exposed  to  the  weather. 

A  very  appreciable  loss  in  driving  timber  is  due  to  sunken  and 
stranded  logs.  The  extent  of  this  loss  is  dependent  on  the  species 
driven  and  the  character  of  the  stream. 

Where  timber  is  brought  down  rough  streams,  over  water- 
falls, and  past  obstructions  it  is  often  badly  battered  and  broken, 
and  gravel  and  sand  become  imbedded  in  a  large  per  cent  of  the 
logs.  Occasionally  they  accumulate  iron  and  spikes,  especially 
where  iron  dogs  are  used  in  rafting.  Much  of  this  foreign  matter 
is  not  readily  detected,  and  mills  suffer  a  monetary  loss  due  to 
damaged  saws  and  time  lost  by  the  sawmill  crew. 

1  The  sawing  season  in  the  North,  on  the  Mississippi  river,  with  sHght  fluctua- 
tions, is  from  May  i  to  November  i. 


FLOATING   AND   RAFTING  345 

Strict  laws  are  now  in  force  in  most  states  providing  adequate 
penalties  for  the  theft  of  logs  so  that  this  evil  has  been  largely 
remedied.  Formerly  theft  was  common  on  the  Pacific  Coast, 
but  is  now  confined  largely  to  logs  in  the  booms  tied  up  at  the 
mills  or  other  storage  places. 

The  actual  loss  in  log  scale  from  all  causes  on  the  Mississippi 
River  drives  averages  about  lo  per  cent;  on  the  Cumberland  and 
Tennessee  Rivers  in  Kentucky,  lo  per  cent;  in  Montana,  lo  per 
cent;  spruce,  5  to  10  per  cent  and  birch,  3  to  27  per  cent  on  short 
drives  in  the  Northeast;  hardwoods  in  Pennsylvania,  25  to 
40  per  cent;  yellow  pine,  20  to  33  per  cent.  The  loss  in  the  Lake 
States  may  be  as  high  as  30  per  cent.^  On  short  drives  of  conif- 
erous timber  the  loss  is  small  and  may  be  from  zero  to  3  per 
cent.  This  loss  is  due  largely  to  sunken  and  stranded  logs  and 
not  to  the  deterioration  of  sapwood. 

Floods  and  storms  have  caused  heavy  losses  to  lumbermen  who 
operate  on  the  large  streams.-  Booms  break  and  loose  logs  are 
carried  past  the  mills  and  deposited  on  the  banks  at  points  below, 
or  carried  out  to  sea.  Where  logs  are  deposited  on  lands  adjacent 
to  the  streams  heavy  expense  is  incurred,  not  only  in  getting  the 
logs  back  in  the  stream  but  in  the  payment  of  damages  to  owners 
on  whose  property  the  logs  were  deposited.  It  seldom  is  profit- 
able to  return  logs  upstream  to  the  mill  and  they  are  often  sold 
at  a  sacrifice  to  mills  below. 

Many  states  have  passed  laws  regulating  the  fee  that  parties 

1  In  the  case  of  James  L.  Gates  vs.  Elliott  C.  Young,  lumber  inspector  of 
District  No.  2,  Wisconsin,  tried  in  the  courts  of  LaCrosse,  Wisconsin,  in  1901,  an 
attempt  was  made  by  plaintiff  to  compel  defendant  to  reimburse  him  for  difference 
in  scale  between  the  "bank"  and  the  boom.  During  the  trial,  prominent  lumber- 
men from  the  Black  River  district  testified  that  "there  might  and  would  occur  a 
difference  between  the  woods  and  mouth  scale  of  from  10  to  30  per  cent." 

-  Notable  instances  are  the  floods  on  the  Susquehanna  River  in  Pennsylvania, 
that  caused  great  loss  to  operators  at  Williamsport.  In  i860,  50,000,000  feet  of 
logs  were  carried  away,  followed  in  186 1  with  a  loss  nearly  as  great.  In  1889, 
300,000,000  feet  were  carried  down  the  river  but  a  considerable  quantity  of  logs 
were  salvaged.  .Another  flood  occurred  in  1894,  when  150,000,000  feet  were  strewn 
along  the  river  from  Williamsport  to  Chesapeake  Bay.  Although  many  logs  from 
these  floods  were  recovered,  the  loss  to  the  owners  was  nevertheless  very  great. 

Floods  on  the  Penobscot  River  in  Maine  in  December,  1901,  carried  to  sea  about 
7.000,000  feet  of  logs,  valued  at  $100,000. 


346  LOGGING 

may  charge  for  catching  stray  logs  that  are  afloat,  and  the  con- 
ditions under  which  log  catchers  may  operate.^ 

Runaway  logs  on  the  Ohio  River  have  been  carried  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  On  many  other  streams  draining  into  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  Oceans  logs  have  been  carried  to  sea  and  lost.  Tim- 
ber caught  on  the  high  seas  is  the  property  of  the  finder.  Rafts 
on  the  Great  Lakes  are  sometimes  broken  up  during  storms  and 
the  logs  scattered  over  the  beach  for  many  miles.  The  collection 
of  logs  under  these  conditions  is  expensive  and  in  some  cases  the 
cost  is  prohibitive. 

(4)  Stream  improvements  are  of  little  or  no  value  after  the 
abandonment  of  logging  operations.  The  improvements  made 
on  streams  to  render  them  driveable  are  often  costly  and  of  such 
a  nature  that  they  cannot  be  used  for  other  purposes  after  logging 
is  completed.  Exceptions  to  this  may  be  noted  in  the  case  of 
the  boom  sticks  used  for  storage  purposes  at  large  sorting  centers, 
which  are  manufactured  into  lumber  at  the  conclusion  of  opera- 
tions; and  of  dams  on  large  streams  which  may  be  retained  for 
the  control  of  the  water  supply. 

(5)  The  heavy  and  long  time  investment  required  for  mill 
stocking.  With  long  drives  that  are  now  made  one  or  more 
seasons  may  elapse  before  the  logs  reach  the  mill.  On  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  Rivers  it  is  not  uncommon  for  logs  to 
reach  their  destination  the  second  summer  after  cutting  and  in 
some  cases  delivery  has  been  delayed  from  three  to  five  years. ^ 
This  long  time  investment  in  stumpage  and  logging  expense  is 

1  The  legal  fee  in  Pennsylvania  is  50  cents  for  each  thousand  feet,  log  scale,  held 
and  delivered  to  the  owner. 

The  legal  fee  on  the  Guyandotte  River  in  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky  is  25 
cents  per  log. 

A  stringent  State  law  in  Washington  forbids  anyone  catching  runaway  logs 
without  permission.  This  law  was  found  necessary  to  stop  the  practice  of  setting 
logs  adrift  from  booms  at  night  and  then  claiming  a  fee  for  returning  them. 
Loggers  pay  5  cents  per  tie  and  50  cents  per  log  for  all  runaways  that  are  caught 
and  returned  to  them. 

^  In  1907  a  drive  of  yellow  poplar  logs  came  down  the  Ohio  River  from  the 
headwaters  of  one  of  the  tributaries,  where  it  had  been  held  up  for  five  years  because 
of  an  insufiScient  water  supply.  The  loss  in  merchantable  contents  of  many  logs 
was  75  per  cent. 


FLOATING   AND    RAFTING  347 

not  only  a  serious  drain  on  the  finances  of  a  lumber  company 
but  the  value  of  the  logs  that  have  been  cut  for  such  long  periods 
is  greatly  depreciated. 

(6)  The  legal  complications  with  riparian  owners.  The  rights 
of  loggers  on  "floatable"  and  "navigable"  streams  are  defined 
by  state  laws  which  vary  in  different  states.  The  driver  of 
logs  is  liable  for  damages  to  property  of  riparian  owners  caused 
by  the  creation  of  artificial  freshets  that  overflow  the  lands, 
damage  the  banks,  or  deposit  logs  or  debris  on  the  property. 
Navigable  streams  must  be  kept  open  and  the  rights  of  all  other 
lawful  users  of  the  stream  respected.  Loggers,  in  some  states, 
find  themselves  frequently  forced  into  costly  litigation  and  this 
has  a  deterrent  effect  on  the  utilization  of  streams  for  the  trans- 
portation of  logs. 

REQUIREMENTS    TOR   A    DRIVEABLE    STREAM 

(i)  The  size  of  the  stream.  The  stream  channel  should  be 
wide  enough  and  deep  enough  to  float  the  largest  and  longest 
logs  without  the  formation  of  jams.  High  banks  are  desirable 
since  they  confine  the  water  and  prevent  it  from  losing  its  force. 
When  not  so  confined  sufficient  water  may  not  be  available  to 
float  logs  for  more  than  a  short  distance,  in  which  case  numerous 
splash  dams  have  to  be  built. 

The  most  economical  use  can  be  made  of  a  small  stream 
when  it  is  only  a  little  wider  than  the  longest  logs  and  of  a 
sufficient  depth  to  float  them  clear  of  all  obstructions.  If  there 
are  obstructions  the  channel  must  be  capable  of  improvement 
at  a  moderate  cost.  On  large  streams  logs  may  be  guided 
around  obstructions  by  the  use  of  booms  and  other  improve- 
ments, but  in  narrow  channels  this  usually  is  impossible  and 
the  stream  bed  must  be  improved  either  by  the  removal  of 
obstructions,  changing  the  course  of  the  stream  or  putting  in 
sluices  for  transporting  logs  around  places  where  floating  by 
ordinary  means  is  not  possible. 

(2)  The  channel  must  be  reasonably  straight  so  that  logs  will 
not  become  jammed  at  the  bends  of  the  stream.  This  is  most 
important  on   small   streams  because   of   the  narrow  channel. 


348  LOGGING 

Oxbows  or  curves  in  small  streams  may  be  remedied  by  making 
a  cut-off  or  channel  connecting  the  two  nearest  points,  but  this 
is  too  costly  where  bends  are  numerous. 

(3)  There  must  be  a  sufficiently  large  drainage  basin  above 
that  part  of  the  stream  used  to  ensure  an  adequate  supply  of 
flood  water.  Coupled  with  this  there  must  be  storage  reservoirs 
for  holding  water  in  reserve  for  flooding  the  stream.  In  the 
North  the  snow  on  the  watershed  may  melt  and  a  large  part  of 
it  run  down  the  streams  before  the  drive  begins.  Storage  basins 
are  necessary  to  conserve  this  water. 

Lakes  form  an  admirable  reservoir  and  when  available  are 
employed  for  this  purpose.  Surplus  water  is  caught  and  held 
in  them  by  placing  dams  across  their  mouths  and  when  several 
lakes  are  tributary  to  one  stream  driving  may  proceed  long 
after  the  natural  spring  freshets  are  over. 

Sites  for  dams  should  have  a  narrow  channel,  high  banks  and 
a  solid  bottom  for  their  foundation.  In  order  to  store  the 
greatest  amount  of  water  they  should  be  built  at  the  foot  of  a 
lake,  at  the  end  of  a  long  stretch  of  dead  water,  or  in  such  a 
place  that  the  maximum  amount  of  water  can  be  stored  with 
a  minimum  of  dam  height. 

Storage  reservoirs  should  be  large  enough  to  permit  log  driv- 
ing for  a  minimum  of  five  or  six  hours  daily  and  the  drainage 
area  should  furnish  enough  water  to  again  fill  the  storage  basin 
before  the  driving  period  on  the  following  day. 

The  required  watershed  area  and  the  capacity  of  the  storage 
basins  for  a  given  stream  are  dependent  on : 

(a)  The  amount  of  moisture  precipitation  on  the  watershed, 
especially  during  the  fall  and  winter  months,  and  also  the  rapidity 
with  which  it  is  made  available  in  the  spring.  Drives  are  gen- 
eially  dependent  on  flood  waters  and  a  rapid  run-off  is  desirable 
because  the  storage  basins  will  then  be  refilled  in  the  minimum 
time  after  each  splash. 

The  determination  of  whether  a  watershed  is  capable  of  sup- 
plying sufficient  flood  water  for  driving  purposes  is  a  matter  of 
judgment  on  the  part  of  the  logger.  He  bases  his  conclusions  on 
the  flood  marks  such  as  flood  wood  and  earth  deposits  which 


FLOATING   AND   RAFTING  349 

are  visible  along  the  stream  banks,  on  a  familiarity  with  similar 
streams,  and  on  a  general  knowledge  of  rainfall  and  floods  in 
the  vicinity.  The  amount  of  water  available  for  driving  in  a 
given  watershed  usually  cannot  be  accurately  determined  since 
specific  records  from  which  to  draw  conclusions  are  seldom 
available. 

Evaporation  may  play  an  important  part  in  influencing  the 
water  supply  during  the  summer  season  by  taking  moisture 
both  from  the  soil  and  from  the  surface  of  the  storage  reservoirs. 
The  water  supply  for  early  spring  driving  is  not  greatly  affected 
by  evaporation,  but  shallow  reservoirs  that  store  water  for  sum- 
mer driving  have  a  high  rate  of  evaporation  and  it  is  sometimes 
impossible  to  collect  a  head  of  water. 

(b)  The  quantity  of  water  required  in  a  given  time  to  carry 
logs  down  stream  between  storage  reservoirs.  On  small  streams 
where  large  quantities  of  water  are  not  available  or  where  the 
banks  are  low  and  the  water  leaves  the  main  channel  it  may 
not  be  possible  to  drive  logs  more  than  a  few  miles  at  most 
before  the  force  of  the  water  is  spent.  In  such  cases  frequent 
storage  basins  are  required. 

(c)  The  length  of  time  for  which  flood  water  must  be  available. 
If  artificial  freshets  are  required  only  for  a  short  time  in  the 
spring  when  the  streams  are  fed  from  snow  water  a  smaller  stor- 
age area  may  be  used  than  when  water  must  be  available  for 
several  months. 

DAMS 

Dams  for  logging  purposes  are  usually  built  of  round  timber 
secured  close  to  the  dam  site. 

It  is  necessary  to  construct  a  dam  on  solid  bottom  or  bed- 
rock because  if  this  is  not  done  water  will  work  underneath  the 
sills  and  ultimately  cause  the  structure  to  go  out. 

There  are  three  types  of  timber  dams  used  for  logging  pur- 
poses: (i)  the  crib  or  pier  dam;  (2)  the  rafter  or  self-loading 
dam;  (3)  the  pile  dam. 

Concrete  dams  of  large  size  are  occasionally  used  by  lumber 
companies,  but  they  are  built  by  engineers,  and  loggers  are 
seldom  concerned  in  their  construction. 


350  LOGGING 

Timber  dams  on  small  streams  usually  have  a  sluiceway 
through  which  logs  are  run  and  waste  water  passed,  while  on 
large  streams  several  waste  gates  are  required  to  take  care  of 
surplus  water.  ''Roll  dams"  which  have  no  gates  or  sluice- 
ways are  also  built  to  raise  the  stream  level.  The  water  and 
logs  pass  over  the  crest  of  the  dam. 

Crih  Dams.  —  The  crib  dam  is  a  common  form  and  is  so- 
called  because  the  buttresses  and  wings  are  built  of  cribs  usually 
filled  with  stone  to  hold  them  down.  The  necessity  for  the 
use  of  stone  is  determined  by  the  head  of  water  carried  and 
by  the  size  of  timber  used  in  construction.  Crib  dams  are 
made  from  round  timber  hewed  on  two  sides,  or  from  squared 
timber. 

The  foundation  of  a  crib  dam  must  be  solid  and,  whenever 
possible,  it  is  built  on  bedrock;  but  if  this  cannot  be  done  the 
foundation  may  rest  on  piles  driven  into  hard  clay  or  to  bed- 
rock. If  this  is  impossible,  a  row  of  3 -inch  plank  or  small  hewed 
poles  sharpened  on  one  end  are  driven  in  a  row  across  the  stream 
channel  just  above  the  upstream  mud-sill.  These  planks  and 
timbers  are  called  toe-spiling. 

If  there  is  much  water  on  the  stream  bed  it  is  diverted  to  one 
side  by  temporary  dams  made  of  sand  bags  or  by  the  construc- 
tion of  sluices  made  from  logs  or  lumber. 

In  constructing  a  dam  whose  sills  are  to  rest  on  bedrock,  the 
first  work  done  after  the  water  is  diverted  is  to  excavate  trenches 
from  4  to  5  feet  wide  in  which  the  logs  forming  the  cribwork  are 
to  rest.  The  foundation  may  be  made  slightly  convex  on  the  up- 
stream side  in  order  that  the  force  of  the  water  will  tend  to  tighten 
the  joints  of  the  dam.  Three  parallel  lines  of  large  logs  called 
"mud-sills"  are  placed  across  the  stream  from  bank  to  bank, 
each  row  being  spaced  6  or  8  feet  from  the  adjoining  one.  If 
the  dam  is  to  be  of  greater  height  than  12  feet,  additional 
sills  must  be  used.  The  mud-sills  must  lie  flat  on  the  bottom 
and  if  possible  should  be  fastened  to  bedrock  with  f-inch  drift 
bolts.  A  row  of  cross-skids  from  12  to  16  inches  in  diameter 
is  laid  8  feet  apart  across  the  mud-sills  in  a  direction  parallel 
with  the  stream  bed.     They  extend  from  the  front  to  the  rear 


FLOATING  AND   RAFTING  35 1 

row  of  mud-sills  into  which  they  are  notched  so  as  to  rest 
firmly.  Logs  with  two  hewed  faces  are  then  placed  on  top  of 
the  cross-skids  to  which  they  are  drift-bolted.  These  lie  parallel 
to  the  mud-sills.  All  timbers  on  the  upstream  side  of  the  dam 
are  hewed  down  and  fitted  to  each  other  so  that  a  tight  face  is 
made. 

A  cribwork  is  built  up  until  it  reaches  the  level  of  the  stream 
bed,  when  it  is  necessary  to  provide  a  "sluiceway"  through 
which  logs  may  pass  and  also  gates  through  which  surplus  water 
may  be  wasted.  Sluiceways  are  generally  from  9  to  15  feet 
wide  and  are  placed  in  the  center  of  the  natural  stream  bed. 
A  sufficient  number  of  waste  gates  are  placed  on  either  side  to 
care  for  the  surplus  flood  water.  The  slides  of  the  sluiceway 
and  of  the  waste  ways,  both  of  which  carry  headworks  for  gates, 
are  made  stronger  and  of  larger  logs  than  the  rest  of  the  structure 
and  are  often  reinforced  with  piers.  In  building  waste  gates 
and  sluices  the  transverse  sills  are  cut  off  where  the  opening 
begins  and  the  cross-skids  which  form  the  side  walls  of  the  sluice 
have  smooth  hewed  faces  that  fit  closely  together.  The  cribwork 
of  the  dam  is  then  continued  to  the  desired  height.  When 
finished  the  upstream  face  of  the  dam  is  calked  with  tow  or 
boarded  up  with  3 -inch  plank  to  make  it  tight.  The  cribs  are 
often  roughly  floored  with  puncheons  and  filled  with  rock  to 
weight  them  down.  The  cover  of  boards  on  the  face  is  sometimes 
replaced  with  a  bed  of  gravel  although  both  boards  and  gravel 
are  frequently  used. 

Piers  are  often  constructed  on  each  side  of  the  sluiceway  above 
the  dam  to  confine  the  water,  strengthen  the  dam,  and  prevent 
the  structure  from  being  undermined. 

An  apron  also  extends  out  from  the  sluice  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  dam  to  carry  the  water  and  logs  away  from  its  base 
and  prevent  the  wearing  away  of  the  earth  around  the  foun- 
dations. 

A  crib  dam  of  hewed  timber  which  was  built  in  Wisconsin  a 
few  years  ago  was  12  feet  high,  20  feet  wide  and  400  feet  long. 
The  cribs  were  filled  with  stone  and  a  roadway  was  built  on  top 
of  the  dam.     The  cost  of  construction  was  approximately  $4000 


352  LOGGING 

for  labor  and  materials,  exclusive  of  the  value  of  the  timber 
used. 

Where  the  stream  bed  is  sandy  and  rather  unstable  a  row  of 
piling  is  sometimes  driven  across  the  dam  site  near  the  center 
of  the  sluiceway.  These  are  cut  off  at  the  stream  bed  level 
and  prevent  the  bottom  from  washing  out.  A  dam  of  this 
character  which  was  lo  feet  high  was  constructed  at  the  follow- 
ing cost : 

Cutting  and  skidding  170  piles $  45 

Driving  170  piles 210 

Cutting  and  skidding  crib  timbers  (5500  board  feet) 15 

Crib  building 90 

Dam  gate  construction 10 

Building  embankment  and  clearing  up  reservoir  in  rear 250 

Total  $620 

Four  men  were  occupied  twenty-one  days  in  driving  piles  and 
ten  days  in  building  the  structure.  In  addition  one  team  and  a 
driver  were  required  for  three  days  to  skid  the  timber.  Other 
workmen  cut  the  piles  and  crib  material.  The  embankment  was 
made  largely  by  hand  labor  and  w^as  not  included  in  the  thirty- 
one  days. 

Rafter  or  Self-loading  Dam.  —  This  type  is  cheaper  to  build 
than  a  crib  dam  and  is  used  where  a  large  head  of  water  is  not 
required. 

Rafter  dam  foundations  are  constructed  in  the  same  manner 
as  crib  dams  with  pockets  8  by  8  feet  in  size.  The  mud-sills  are 
drift-bolted  to  bedrock  when  possible.  As  the  framework  is 
built  up,  the  face  of  the  dam  is  drawn  in  from  the  level  of  the 
stream  bed  so  that  the  upstream  face  has  an  angle  of  3  horizontal 
to  I  vertical.  The  dam  should  be  at  least  8  feet  wide  on  top. 
Two  thicknesses  of  3-inch  plank  or  hewed  poles  are  spiked  on  the 
sloping  face,  the  joints  being  alternated  and  the  whole  covered 
with  a  bed  of  gravel.  The  rear  mud-sill  is  protected  by  toe- 
spiling  driven  down  to  hard  clay  or  bedrock,  and  the  cribs  are 
weighted  down  with  stone.  A  dam  of  this  character,  200  feet 
long  and  10  feet  high  was  built  in  the  Adirondacks  at  a  cost  of 
$1600.  A  similar  dam  60  feet  long  and  10  feet  high  was  built 
in  Canada  for  $700. 


FLOATING   AND    RAFTING 


353 


The  frame  for  rafter  dams  is  frequently  supported  on  round 
or  square  timbers  instead  of  crib  work. 

Pile  Dam.  —  The  buttresses  and  wings  of  this  type  of  dam  are 
formed  by  a  double  row  of  piles  driven  to  bedrock,  the  space 


Photograph  by  E.  R.  McMillan. 
Fig.  99.  —  The  Sluiceway  and  Apron  of  a  Rafter  Dam  on  the  Priest  River. 
Idaho. 


between  them  being  filled  with  gravel  and  stone.  The  up- 
stream face  is  banked  up  with  brush  and  gravel  to  stop  leakage. 
This  type  is  not  in  frequent  use,  although  it  was  at  one  time 
common  in  the  Lake  States. 


354 


LOGGING 


SLUICE    GATES 

It  is  necessary  to  provide  some  form  of  gate  for  controlling 
the  water  in  the  sluiceway.  The  more  common  type  is  a  lift 
gate  the  width  of  the  sluice.  It  slides  up  and  down  in  a  groove 
formed  by  two  heavy  timbers  nailed  on  each  side  of  the  sluice 
walls,  which  are  far  enough  apart  to  allow  the  gate  to  work  up 
and  down  easily.  The  gate  may  be  lifted  by  levers,  by  a  ratchet 
device  or  by  a  windlass  operated  by  levers. 


Fig.  ioo.  — The  Upstream  Ivux-  ol  a  Small  kaltcr  I) 
Form  of  Lift-Gate. 


Bear-trap  Gate.  —  This  type  of  gate  has  been  used  frequently 
in  Pennsylvania.  The  chief  features  are  two  rectangular  leaves 
each  of  which  has  a  length  equal  to  the  width  of  the  sluice. 
They  are  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  sluice  by  hinges  on  which 
they  turn.  The  upstream  leaf  overlaps  the  downstream  one 
when  the  leaves  are  down  and  the  gate  open. 

The  gate  is  raised  by  the  pressure  of  water  from  the  upper 
pool,  which  is  conveyed  in  a  channel,  controlled  by  a  sluice 
gate,  to  a  chamber  {A),  Fig.  loi,  constructed  under  the  gate. 
A  second  channel,  also  provided  with  a  gate  or  stopcock,  con- 


FLOATING   AND    IL\FT1NG 


355 


nects  this  chamber  with  the  lower  pool.  When  the  connection 
with  the  upper  pool  is  opened,  while  that  with  the  lower  pool 
is  closed,  water  from  the  upper  pool  fills  the  chamber  under 
the  gate.  This  causes  the  downstream  leaf  to  rise,  first  by 
flotation  and  then  by  the  impulse  from  the  flow  of  the  water. 
The  upper  leaf  is  raised  by  the  lower  leaf  which  slides  under  it, 
the  friction  being  reduced  by  rollers.  The  height  to  which  the 
gate  rises  is  limited  either  by  stay  chains,  or  by  a  wood  cleat 
nailed  on  the  under  side  of  the  upper  leaf.  In  lowering  the  gates 
the  operation  is  reversed,  the  connection  with  the  upper  pool 
being  closed  while  that  with  the  lower  pool  is  opened.  The 
gate  may  be  made    to  assume    any  intermediate   position  by 


Fig   ioi.  —  The  Bear-trap  Sluice  Gate. 


regulating  the  extent  to  which  the  two  valves  controlling  the 
inlet  and  outlet  of  the  chamber  under  the  gate  are  opened. 

The  objections  to  this  form  of  gate  are:  (i)  the  overlap  of  the 
upper  leaf  over  the  lower  one  necessitates  lifting  a  considerable 
amount  of  water  when  the  gate  is  raised;  (2)  the  head  of  water 
obtainable  is  only  about  one-third  of  the  total  width  of  the 
leaves;  (3)  the  friction  between  the  two  leaves,  even  when  re- 
duced by  rollers  makes  it  difficult  to  operate  the  gate  smoothly; 
(4)  the  gate  must  be  made  in  one  section  and  if  the  gate  is  wide 
one  side  is  apt  to  go  up  faster  than  the  other,  causing  twisting 
strains;  (5)  any  driftwood  or  stones  which  may  lodge  between 
the  leaves  make  the  lowering  of  the  gate  impossible  until  the 
obstruction  is  removed. 

Water  can  be  let  out  of  the  reservoir  very  rapidly  with  a  gate 
of  this  character,  and  the  latter  can  be  raised  and  lowered  by 


356 


LOGGING 


FLOATING   AND    RAFTING 


357 


one  man  as  no  special  effort  is  required,  both  of  which  are 
advantages. 

Logging  dams  with  "bear-trap"  gates  80  feet  wide  have  been 
built  and  operated  in  Wisconsin. 

Half-moon  Gates.  —  A  dam  constructed  to  store  water  for  log 
sluices  often  has  a  gate  of  a  type  called  the  "half-moon."  It  is 
not  used  for  wide  sluiceways  nor  for  large  heads  of  water.  The 
gate,  which  is  shghtly  curved,  fits  tightly  into  the  sluiceway  with 
the  convex  face  upstream.     It  is  supported  by  four  arms  from 


Fig.  103.- 


Upstream  View  of  a  Rafter  Dam,  showing  a  Needle  Gate. 
Appalachians. 


16  to  24  feet  long,  which  extend  to  the  lower  end  of  the  sluice 
where  they  are  attached  to  a  beam  hung  on  bearings  placed  on 
either  side  of  the  top  of  the  sluiceway.  A  platform  erected  over 
the  gate  supports  a  drum  actuated  by  a  hand  wheel  with  gearing, 
or  by  a  hand  lever.  Chains  are  attached  to  either  side  of  the 
gate  head  and  are  passed  up  over  the  drum,  and  the  gate,  which 
swings  through  an  arc  of  a  circle  with  a  radius  equal  to  the  length 
of  the  supporting  braces,  is  raised  by  winding  in  the  chain. 

Needle  or  Bracket  Gate.  —  Splash  dams,  especially  in  the  Appa- 
lachian and  Pennsylvania  regions,  are  often  provided  with  so- 


358  LOGGING 

called  needle  gates,  which  consist  of  hewed  or  sawed  3-  by  5-inch 
or  3-  by  6-inch  scantlings  placed  vertically  across  the  opening, 
thus  forming  a  solid  front.  The  needles  are  supported  at  the 
lower  end  by  a  cross-beam  or  groove  cut  in  the  base  sill.  The 
tops  rest  against  a  cross-beam  to  which  the  needles  are  often 
attached  by  short  chains.  The  needles  are  raised  either  by  a  wind- 
lass, a  crowbar  or  a  lever.  They  are  especially  serviceable  for 
dams  at  storage  reservoirs  through  which  logs  are  not  sluiced,  but 
where  it  is  necessary  to  suddenly  release  large  quantities  of  water 
in  order  to  carry  logs  over  very  rough  stretches.  In  the  above 
case  the  needles  may  be  hberated  by  breaking  the  bottom  beam 
by  a  charge  of  dynamite. 

Barn-door  Gate.  —  This  consists  of  one  or  two  heavy  gates  or 
doors  hung  vertically  on  bearings  attached  to  the  sides  of  the 
sluice.  Double  gates  are  held  in  place,  when  closed,  by  an  up- 
right beam  in  the  center  of  the  sluiceway,  and  single  gates  by  a 
similar  beam  placed  on  one  side  of  the  sluiceway.  A  horizontal 
pole  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  an  upright  one  to  hold  the 
gate  shut.  These  gates  have  been  used  in  Pennsylvania  and  in 
some  parts  of  the  Appalachians,  but  they  are  not  popular  be- 
cause the  force  of  the  water  throws  them  open  so  violently  that 
they  are  often  damaged. 

A  light  drop  gate  is  often  used  to  shut  off  the  flow  of  water 
while  the  large  gates  are  being  closed. 


LOG   CARRIERS 

Loggers  operating  near  the  headwaters  of  streams  occasion- 
ally find  it  desirable  to  transfer  logs  from  one  water  course  to 
another  in  order  to  bring  them  down  the  stream  on  which  the 
manufacturing  plant  is  located. 

A  log  carrier  similar  to  the  log  haul-up  in  a  sawmill  is  employed 
for  elevating  the  logs  to  the  maximum  height  desired,  and  a  log 
sluice  with  a  V-box  4  or  5  feet  high  and  7  or  8  feet  across  the 
top  then  carries  the  logs  into  the  stream  on  the  other  water- 
shed. Water  for  the  sluiceway  is  furnished  by  a  series  of  pumps 
of  large  capacity. 


FLOATING   AND    RAFTING  359 

An  interesting  example  of  a  device  of  this  sort  was  the  log 
carrier  and  sluice  constructed  some  years  ago  in  the  Nipissing 
district,  Ontario,  Canada,  to  divert  logs  from  the  headwaters  of 
the  Muskoka  River  to  those  of  the  Trent  River. 

The  logs  were  first  transported  up  a  log  carrier  300  feet  long 
to  a  reservoir  80  feet  long,  7  feet  wide  and  8  feet  deep,  located 
40  feet  above  the  initial  level.  A  450-horse-power  engine  fur- 
nished power  for  the  jack  works  at  the  reservoir,  and  also  for  a 
set  of  centrifugal  pumps  with  a  capacity  of  20,000  gallons  per 
minute,  which  provided  water  for  the  reservoir,  and  for  a  log 
sluice  which  was  3000  feet  long  and  had  a  4.5  per  cent  grade. 
The  logs  as  they  reached  the  foot  of  the  sluice  were  transported 
by  a  log  carrier  up  a  100-foot  rise  to  a  lake  f-mile  distant,  where 
they  were  placed  in  a  boom  and  towed  to  the  head  of  the  river 
down  which  they  were  driven.  The  second  carrier  consisted  of 
eight  sections,  each  with  a  massive  jack  works  driven  by  rope 
transmission  from  a  400-horse-power  horizontal  water  wheel 
located  near  the  center  of  the  haul-up.  Water  for  power  pur- 
poses was  brought  in  a  flume  from  the  terminus  of  the  carrier. 
The  conveyor  chains  were  made  with  i-inch  round  links  and 
had  log  seats  at  intervals  of  8  feet.  The  capacity  of  the  carrier 
was  10,000  logs  in  twenty-two  hours. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  STREAM  BED  AND  BANKS 

Before  a  stream  can  be  driven  it  must  be  cleared  of  fallen 
timber,  snags  and  boulders.  The 
former  is  often  cut  into  short 
lengths  with  an  ax  and  allowed  to 
drift  downstream,  or  is  hauled  out 
on  the  banks.  Snags,  rocks  and 
similar  obstructions  are  removed 
with  dynamite.  This  work  is 
done  in  the  summer  and  early 
fall  when  the  water  is  low. 

Pier  Dams   and  Abutments.—  ^ig-   104.  -  An  Abutment  for  the 

-r^.        ■,  -11  Protection  of  Stream  Banks. 

rier  dams  are  cribwork  structures 

used  to  narrow  the  channel  of  a  stream,  guide  logs  past  rocks 


360  LOGGING 

and  other  obstructions,  and  in  some  cases  to  block  an  old 
channel  and  divert  the  water  into  another  course. 

They  are  built  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  piers  of  crib-dams 
with  cribs  from  6  to  8  feet  square,  and  mud-sills  fastened  to 
bedrock  or  lirmly  anchored  in  the  stream  bed.  The  cribs  are 
loaded  with  rock  to  give  them  stability. 

Abutments  are  used  to  protect  the  banks  of  streams  during 
flood  time,  and  prevent  them  from  being  worn  away.  The 
usual  form  consists  of  a  cribwork  of  timber  built  into  the  bank. 
The  space  between  the  shore  and  the  timbers  is  filled  with  rock 
to  prevent  the  bank  earth  from  washing  out.  Where  streams 
pass  through  wide  bottoms  and  the  banks  are  too  low  to  con- 
fine the  flood  water,  an  artificial  channel  is  sometimes  created 
by  constructing  false  banks  of  lumber.  Cribwork  supports  a 
strong  frame  of  timbers  on  which  heavy  planking  is  nailed. 


Fig.  105.  — An  Artificial  Channel  used  to  confine  Flood  Water  in  a 
Narrow  Bed. 

Booms.  —  Backwaters,  pockets,  low  banks,  obstructions  and 
shallow  places  where  logs  are  apt  to  be  lost  or  stranded  occur 
on  most  streams.  Booms,  consisting  of  long  sticks  of  timber 
fastened  together  end  for  end  and  moored  to  objects  on  shore  or 
to  piling  or  cribs  in  the  stream,  are  used  to  confine  the  logs  to  the 
channel.  Booms  are  also  used  to  aid  drivers  in  sluicing  logs 
through  dams,  for  confining  logs  at  sorting  gaps  and  storage 
points,  and  for  towing.  They  are  built  in  many  forms  and  are 
called  sheer  booms  when  used  to  confine  logs  for  storage  purposes 
in  given  channels  and  towing  booms  when  used  to  impound  logs 
for  towing  purposes.  They  are  again  designated  as  limber  and 
stiff  booms  according  to  their  manner  of  construction.  Both 
sheer  booms  and  towing  booms  are  often  of  the  same  pattern  and 
are  known  as  the  ''plug"  boom,  "sheep-shank"  boom,  "chain" 


FLOATING   AND   RAFTING 


361 


boom,  "bracket"  boom,  "fin"  boom  and  "barge"  boom.  The 
first  three  are  single-log  limber  booms,  the  names  referring  to 
the  manner  of  attachment  one  to  the  other;  the  bracket  boom  is 
a  stiff  boom  several  logs  wide,  and  the  fin  and  barge  booms  are 
either  stiff  or  limber. 

Plug  booms,  also  known  as  "plug  and  knock  down"  booms, 
consist  of  logs  fastened  end  to  end  with  short  pieces  of  rope  or 
withes  whose  ends  are  passed  through  holes  bored  in  the  ends  of 
the  boom  and  securely  fastened  by  plugs  driven  after  them. 

Booms  of  this  character  are  serviceable  as  a  makeshift  when 
stronger  fastenings  are  not  available. 


DOG  AND  CHAIN 


CLEVIS  AND  RING 


Fig.  106.  —  The  Methods  of  fastening  Boom  Sticks  with  Chains. 


Sheep-shank  booms  are  temporary  booms  fastened  together  by 
rope,  a  half  hitch  being  made  around  the  ends  of  the  logs.  They 
are  used  for  repairing  breaks  in  other  booms  where  rope  is  the 
only  equipment  available. 

Chain  booms  are  the  common  form  of  limber  boom  in  use  to- 
day. Short  chains  are  used  to  connect  the  logs,  and  are  fastened 
in  several  different  ways:  (i)  by  a  chain  and  dogs;  (2)  by  a  ring 
and  toggle;  (3)  by  a  clevis,  making  an  endless  chain.  The  latter 
form  is  used  very  commonly  for  towing  purposes  and  for  storage 
areas  because  the  booms  can  be  readily  uncoupled. 

The  bracket  boom  is  a  stiff  boom  made  three  or  four  logs  wide. 
The  logs  are  fastened  together  by  short  boards  nailed  cross- 


362 


LOGGING 


wise  of  the  boom,  or  by  short  poles  fastened  to  the  logs  by  means 
of  wooden  plugs,  chains  or  withes.  Booms  of  this  character  are 
stronger  than  single  booms  and  are  used  on  the  upstream  side 
of  splash  dams  for  converging  logs  toward  the  sluiceway,  and  are 
also  used  around  storage  areas  and  sorting  gaps  as  runways 
for  men. 

The  fin  boom  is  often  employed  to  change  the  course  of  logs 
from  one  side  of  a  stream  to  the  other,  or  to  guide  them  past 
obstructions.     It  is  especially  serviceable  on  a  navigable  stream 


Fig.  107. —  A  Fin  Boom.     a.  A  movable  fin  boom  both  open  and  closed,     b.  The 
arrangement  of  boom  and  fins  for  a  i)crmanent  fin  boom. 

where  permanent  booms  cannot  be  maintained,  and  in  places 
where  it  is  not  feasible  to  moor  the  outer  end  of  the  boom  to  a 
crib  or  pile.  The  shore  end  must  always  be  upstream.  The 
fin  boom  may  be  either  limber  or  stiff,  preferably  the  latter,  and 
may  be  permanent  or  temporary.  It  consists  of  a  main  boom  to 
which  the  ends  of  pole  or  plank  fins  are  attached  by  chains  at 
regular  intervals.  When  the  boom  must  be  opened  and  closed 
at  frequent  intervals  the  outer  ends  of  the  fins,  which  act  as 
rudders,  are  connected  by  a  rope  or  cable  which  passes  around 
a  drum  or  power-winch  located  on  shore,  while  on  stationary 
booms  the  fins  are  weighted  at  the  ends  to  give  them  rigidity, 


FLOATING  AND   RAFTING 


363 


and  are  fixed  in  a  permanent  position  by  means  of  a  brace 
extending  from  the  fin  to  the  main  boom. 

The  boom  may  be  thrown  across  a  stream  at  any  angle  less 
than  90  degrees  by  winding  in  on  the  cable  and  increasing  the 
angle  between  the  boom  and  rudders.  The  boom  may  be  brought 
to  shore  by  letting  out  cable. 

A  barge  boom  consists  of  a  limber  boom,  three  or  four  logs 
wide,  the  upper  end  of  which  is  fastened  to  a  barge  anchored  in 
midstream  and  the  downstream  end  to  a  tree  on  shore.  A  boom 
of  this  character  is  serviceable  in  a  navigable  stream  where  per- 
manent booms  cannot  be  used,  and  where  the  stream  bed  can- 
not be  obstructed  with  piling  or  cribs.  It  is  often  used  in 
connection  with  a  fin  boom  when  it  is  desired  to  shunt  logs  to 
one  side  of  a  wide  stream. 

STORAGE   AND    SORTING    FACILITIES 

On  all  large  streams  on  which  logs  are  transported,  the  prop- 
erties of  various  companies  become  intermingled,  and  at  destina- 


FiG.  108. — Piers  built  in  a  River  to  hold  Storage  Booms  in  I'l; 


tion  it  is  necessary  to  sort  out  the  timber  of  each  owner.  For 
this  purpose  sorting  works  are  maintained  at  points  where  any 
given  logs  are  to  be  manufactured,  and  extensive  log  storage 


364 


LOGGING 


facilities  also  are  often  provided.     Both  the  sorting  and  storage 
works  are  generally  owned  by  corporations  (p.  368). 

The  storage  booms  consist  of  large  pockets,  extending  some- 
times for  miles  along  one  or  both  sides  of  the  stream,  into  which 
logs  are  shunted  until  the  sorters  are  ready  for  them,  and  also 
to  hold  sorted  logs  until  wanted.  The  outer  boundary  of  these 
pockets  is  formed  by  single  booms  consisting  of  logs  from  2  to  3 
feet  in  diameter  fastened  together  with  i-inch  or  i  j-inch  chains  or 
other  devices.  The  boom  sticks  are  held  in  place  in  midstream 
by  cribs  or  nests  of  piling  placed  75  or  100  feet  apart. 


Phaloaraph  by  R.  B.  Miller 

Fig.    109.  —  Log   Storing  and   Assorting  Works  on  the  St.  John   River.     New 
Brunswick. 


Cribs  are  built  of  round  logs  from  16  to  24  inches  in  diameter 
and  of  various  sizes  depending  on  the  character  of  stream  in 
which  they  are  placed  and  the  amount  of  strain  they  must 
withstand.  The  foundation  is  laid  on  bedrock  or  solid 
bottom  and  the  frame  built  up  in  the  form  of  a  square  or 
rectangular  crib.  In  some  cases  the  cribs  are  built  rectang- 
ular in  form  above  the  water,  but  usually  the  upstream  face  is 
drawn  in  at  an  angle  of  from  30  to  40  degrees  and  planked 
over.  The  sloping  face  prevents  ice  and  driftwood  from  form- 
ing a  jam  behind  the  crib  and  causing  it  to  be  carried  away. 


FLOATING   AND    RAFTING 


365 


The  cribs  are  filled  with  rock  to  anchor  them  firmly.  A  common 
method  of  attaching  the  boom  sticks  to  the  cribs  is  to  drive  a 
pile  in  the  center  of  the  crib.  After  a  large  iron  ring  has  been 
loosely  fitted  over  this  pile  the  boom  is  fastened  by  a  chain  to 
the  ring,  and  as  the  water  rises  and  falls  the  ring  is  slipped  up 
and  down  with  the  chain.  Where  piling  is  used  instead  of  cribs 
a  nest  of  three  or  four  are  driven  together  and  bound  with 
chains  or  cable. 

Storage  booms  are  usually  taken  in  and  the  chains  repaired 
after  the  drive  is  over.  They  are  replaced  early  in  the  spring,  as 
soon  as  the  ice  leaves  the  stream. 

The  capacity  of  storage  booms  varies  with  the  size  and  length 
of  timber  handled.  The  following  table  ^  shows  the  area  in 
acres  required  to  store  spruce  logs  of  several  sizes  and  lengths, 
and  also  the  number  of  boom  logs  required  to  impound  given 
quantities  of  timber  when  the  logs  are  forced  into  a  compact 
body  by  the  current  of  the  stream,  all  sticks  floating  on  the 
surface. 


Average 
length. 

Average 
diameter. 

Average  scale 
per  piece.2 

Area  for 

storage  of 

1,000,000  feet. 

Feet. 

15-3 
20.5 
24.6 
30.0 

Inches. 

5-9 
6.7 
10.4 
15.6 

Board  feet. 

21.4 

31.8 

90.7 

249.48 

Acres. 

13-41 

11.94 

8.15 

5-34 

Blodgett  rule. 


The  average  storage  capacity  of  medium-sized  white  pine  and 
yellow  pine  logs  is  approximately  250,000  feet  per  acre. 

Sorting  Equipment.  —  The  main  feature  is  the  sorting  jack 
where  logs  are  separated  and  deflected  into  the  storage  pockets 
downstream.  The  usual  type  of  sorting  gap  consists  of  two  op- 
posite rafts  or  bracket  booms  placed  from  30  to  50  feet  apart  and 
connected  by  an  elevated  runway  on  which  the  sorters  stand 
and  separate  the  logs  by  marks  as  they  pass  under  them. 
There  are  many  forms  of  gaps  governed  by  the  amount  of  work 
'  Boom  Areas,  by  A.  M.  Carter,  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  X,  No.  i,  p.  15. 


366 


LOGGING 


to  be  done  and  the  physical  conditions  that  must  be  met.  Fig. 
no  shows  a  sorting  gap  on  the  St.  John  River  near  Fredericton, 
New  Brunswick.  This  consists  of  two  block  piers  50  feet  apart, 
behind  which  are  rafts  built  of  five  logs  each,  so  arranged  that 
five  gaps,  each  22  feet  wide,  are  formed  on  each  side.  The 
space  between  opposite  rafts  is  spanned  by  4-foot  plank  bridges 
on  which  the  sorters  stand.  The  division  boom  shown  extends 
downstream  for  2000  feet  to  sheer  booms  which  deflect  the  logs 
to  the  American  and  Canadian  sides.  Seventy-five  men  are 
employed  at  this  gap  and  during  the  season  150,000,000  feet  of 
logs  are  handled. 


-^ 

1   %. 

-             0 

-. 

^_^— - 

■          P 

p"^^ 

-♦    ^ 

5         -> 

s 

_,        ~* 

— ».  — 

-2_^ 

-* 

Loss*-    -J 

|-    _ioss 

"^  Lojjs  i 

H 

T                  ~* 

-.s, 

^       -* 

-^ 

^ 

-~~_ 

^L 

/  , 

5S 

// 

O 

CANADIAN  SIDE  OF  SORTING  GAP 

f— 


^ 


V^ 


fj>VH 


SJ>^-^ 


y^- 


Divisioa  Boom 


^  -        C3         V         O        -  ^  ^     -."C>,        ^ 

/  AMERICAN   SIDE  OF^SORTING  G^P  ~^ 

-^        -v^         ^  -.  ^       ■* 

Fig.  1 10.  —  A  Sorting  CJap  on  the  St.  John  River  near  Fredericton.  New  Brunswick. 


A  sorting  device  used  in  the  Appalachian  region  is  shown  in 
Fig.  Ill,  a. 

This  consists  of  a  sheer  boom  {A)  moored  to  a  tree  on  the 
bank  and  braced  by  a  secondary  boom  at  {B) .  The  boom  (/I )  is 
held  in  place  in  the  stream  by  cables  attached  as  shown  in  Fig. 
111,6.  The  lower  end  of  the  boom  is  broken  at  (C)  and  may  be 
opened  to  allow  logs  and  driftwood  to  pass  downstream.  A 
sorting  platform  (Z)),  with  braces  {E)  and  (F),  is  provided  on 
which  the  workers  stand  and  shunt  the  logs  to  be  stored  into 
the  pocket  (G).  The  remainder  pass  downstream  to  other 
storage  pockets  or  to  points  below.  The  boom  {H)  is  elevated 
by  means  of  a  built-up  raft  (Fig.  1 1 1 ,  c)  to  allow  logs  to  pass 
underneath  into  the  storage  pocket. 


FLOATING   AND   RAFTING 


367 


Rafting  Works.  —  These  may  be  located  below  sorting  gaps, 
at  the  head  of  still  water  on  non-navigable  streams  or  at  the 
terminus  of  a  logging  railroad,  or  other  form  of  transport  along 
the  shore  of  a  lake  or  at  tidewater.  The  form  of  the  rafting 
works  is  governed  by  the  character  of  the  stream  or  body  of 
water  and  by  the  form  of  raft  constructed.  On  rivers  where 
rafts  are  limited  in  width  because  of  the  size  of  the  channel, 
rafts  are  made  long  and  narrow  and  the  rafting  works,  if  logs  of 
numerous  owners  are  handled,  may  consist  of  many  pockets 


Fig.  III. — A  Patent  Sorting  Device  used  in  the  Appalachian  Region. 


whose  boundaries  are  marked  by  bracket  booms  with  plank 
runways  which  are  held  in  position  by  piling. 

On  the  Great  Lakes,  where  logs  are  towed  loose  in  booms, 
storage  areas  off-shore  are  provided  in  which  logs  are  held  until 
a  sufficient  number  have  accumulated.  These  areas  are  bounded 
by  heavy  sheer  booms  held  in  place  by  piling.  The  rafts  are 
made  up  by  surrounding  a  group  of  logs  with  heavy  towing 
booms  and  towing  them  out  of  the  storage  areas. 

Along  some  of  the  tidewaters  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  logs 
are  made  into  bundles  and  towed  to  the  mills.  The  rafting 
works  here  consist  of  an  unloading  wharf  which  projects  into 


368  LOGGING 

the  stream,  and  special  devices  for  holding  chains  and  cables 
while  the  logs  are  being  bundled  (p.  387). 

On  the  tidewater  of  Puget  Sound,  where  large  numbers  of  logs 
are  rafted  to  the  mills,  a  rafting  works  consists  of  an  unloading 
dock  several  hundred  feet  long  projecting  into  the  storage  area. 
The  latter  is  enclosed  by  sheer  booms  which  are  held  in  place  by 
piles  driven  about  70  feet  apart.  A  rafting  pocket  75  feet  wide 
and  800  feet  long  is  enclosed  in  booms  and  in  this  the  rafts  are 
built  in  sections. 

Ocean-going  rafts  are  built  on  tidewater  along  the  Columbia 
river.  The  usual  storage  area  is  provided  and  in  addition, 
cradles  in  which  the  rafts  are  built  (p.  390). 

THE    DRIVE 

The  season  in  which  logs  are  transported  by  water  varies  in 
different  regions.  In  the  Northeast  and  the  Lake  States  loggers 
depend  primarily  on  the  spring  flood  waters  that  are  caused  by 
the  melting  snow  and  hence  the  drive  must  begin  as  soon  as 
the  ice  goes  out  of  the  streams,  since  the  water  supply  gradually 
decreases  as  the  season  advances,  and  on  the  smaller  streams 
may  be  insufficient  by  early  summer. 

In  the  Appalachians  and  in  the  South  where  the  snowfall  is 
limited,  reliance  is  placed  on  freshets  or  heavy  rainfalls  for  water 
to  float  the  logs  and  the  drive  is  conducted  whenever  water  is 
available.  On  large  bodies  of  water  like  the  Great  Lakes,  Puget 
Sound,  and  the  Ocean  the  governing  factor  is  the  storm  period 
and  the  summer  months  are  preferred  because  there  are  a  mini- 
mum number  of  storms  during  this  season. 

Conduct  of  Drives.  —  The  business  conduct  of  drives  on  streams 
may  be  under  the  control  of  one  man,  a  group  of  individuals,  or 
a  corporation,  depending  on  the  ownership  of  the  timber.  Raft- 
ing on  the  large  rivers,  with  the  exception  of  the  Mississippi,  on 
lakes  and  on  the  ocean  is  usually  undertaken  by  individuals  or 
corporations. 

Drives  on  large  rivers  often  originate  on  numerous  small 
streams  around  the  headwaters,  from  each  one  of  which  come  the 
logs  of  an  individual  or  a  company.     Under  these  circumstances 


FLOATING  AND   RAFTING  369 

the  stream  improvements  are  made  and  the  drive  is  conducted 
by  one  firm.  On  reaching  the  larger  stream  the  logs  of  all 
parties  become  intermingled  and  the  drive  is  then  conducted  as  a 
"union"  drive  or  as  a  corporation  drive. 

On  union  drives  which  have  been  frequent  in  the  Northeast, 
the  expense  of  improvements  and  labor  hire  is  apportioned 
among  the  companies  and  individuals  according  to  the  amount 
of  timber  each  has  in  the  stream.  The  direct  control  of  the  drive 
is  vested  usually  in  the  interested  members,  in  rotation,  and  each 
one  has  an  employee  at  the  sorting  gap  to  look  after  his  interests 
when  the  logs  are  assorted. 

A  more  common  method  is  the  control  of  the  main  drive  by 
boom  companies  chartered  by  the  State  in  which  the  business 
is  conducted.  The  stream,  if  long,  may  be  divided  into  several 
sections,  each  in  charge  of  a  separate  corporation.  The  member- 
ship of  such  corporations  is  usually  confined  to  loggers  who  use 
the  river  for  log  transportation ;  however,  it  often  does  not  include 
some  of  the  smaller  operators.  Many  of  the  boom  companies 
operating  in  the  Lake  States,  especially  on  the  Mississippi  River 
and  its  tributaries,  have  a  limited  capital  stock  divided  among 
a  few  shareholders. 

Another  form  of  membership  is  represented  by  companies, 
such  as  the  St.  John  River  Log  Driving  Company,  operating 
in  the  vicinity  of  Fredericton,  New  Brunswick.^  Each  logger 
having  100,000  feet  or  more  passing  through  the  limits  of  the 
company  is  eligible  to  membership,  on  filing  with  the  Secretary 
a  statement  of  all  logs  placed  in  the  stream  and  their  point  of 
origin,  a  list  of  all  log  marks  used,  and  certain  other  required  facts. 
On  filing  this  report  the  applicant  becomes  a  member  and  is 
entitled  to  one  vote  for  each  100,000  feet  of  logs  he  has  in  the 
drive.  Thus  every  logger  of  any  consequence  has  a  voice  in  the 
administration  of  the  drive. 

All  states  having  large  streams  which  are  used  for  the  transport 
of  logs  have  laws  relating  to  the  rights  and  privileges  of  loggers 
and  setting  forth  the  duties  and  liabilities  of  incorporated  boom 

1  St.  John  River  Log  Driving  Operations,  by  G.  Scott  Grimmer,  Canada 
Lumberman  and  Woodworker,  Vol.  XXXII,  No.  11,  June,  1912,  p.  28. 


370  LOGGING 

companies.  The  charters  of  boom  companies  usually  regulate 
the  prices  to  be  charged  for  handhng  and  rafting  logs.  The 
state  laws  of  Minnesota  provide  for  inspection  and  scale  of  logs 
in  the  booms  by  a  surveyor-general  and  his  deputies,  for  which 
a  fee  of  5  cents  per  thousand  feet  for  all  logs  scaled  is  charged 
against  the  boom  company.  The  surveyor-general  is  empowered 
to  seize  and  sell  logs  in  case  of  non-payment  of  the  fee. 

On  some  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  River,  especially  on  the  Big 
Sandy  down  which  great  quantities  of  logs  have  been  floated, 
the  practice  is  for  individuals  to  drive  their  logs  loose  from 
the  headwaters  of  the  small  streams  to  private  rafting  works 
located  on  the  lower  course  of  the  Big  Sandy  where  the  logs  are 
made  into  rafts  by  contract,  floated  to  the  mouth  of  the  river 
and  there  taken  in  charge  by  the  owner  and  towed  down  the 
Ohio  River  to  the  mills. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  the  logs  are  brought  to  tidewater  by 
logging  railroads  and  made  into  rafts  at  the  owner's  rafting  works. 

A.     LOG    MARKS   AND    BRANDS 

Some  method  of  identifying  the  logs  of  different  owners  when 
they  are  assorted  at  destination  is  imperative  and  lumbermen 
have  adopted  the  system  of  branding  their  logs  at  the  skidways, 
in  the  forest  or  at  the  landing  on  the  stream.  The  brands  con- 
sist of  numerals  or  characters,  mounted  on  the  head  of  a  sledge 
hammer.  A  log  is  stamped  at  several  places  on  each  end  so 
that  no  matter  what  portion  of  the  log  is  afloat  the  brand  can  be 
readily  seen. 

To  further  aid  in  the  identification  of  logs  the  use  of  a  bark 
mark  which  is  a  design  cut  on  the  log  near  the  end  is  obligatory 
in  some  states.  This  may  be  made  either  by  the  sawyers  when 
they  cut  up  the  tree  or  at  the  landing.  A  bark  mark  is  often 
used  in  connection  with  a  "catch  mark"  painted  on  the  ends  of 
the  log.  In  such  cases  a  brand  is  not  used.  The  number  of 
brands  and  marks  used  on  a  given  stream  is  sometimes  large, 
each  logger  often  employing  several  to  distinguish  logs  coming 
from  given  streams  or  sections  of  land.  Some  loggers  use  a  new 
set  each  season  in  order  to  keep  the  logs  of  different  years  sepa- 


FLOATING  AND   RAFTING  371 

rate.  On  the  upper  Mississippi  River  more  than  2000  log  marks 
have  been  registered  with  the  surveyor-general,  and  over  1600 
have  been  employed  during  a  single  season. 

The  marks  and  brands  represent  a  great  variety  of  figures 
comprising  single  letters,  monograms  of  two  or  three  letters  and 
numerous  figures  which  are  known  amongst  river  drivers  by 
fantastic  names. 

Log  brands  have  always  been  the  distinguishing  feature  for 
logs  in  the  Adirondack  region,  while  in  Maine  bark  marks  are 
extensively  employed.     Both  forms  are  used  on  the  Mississippi 

LVg)yvA/\r[^  M<^iXA/eo 

1  2        3        '  4  5  6  7  8  9  10  11  12 

OX  ll/X  0+i^^7\^h  F? 

13   14     15  16   17     IS   19   20   21        22       23   24     25    26 


Fig.  112.  —  Some  Mississippi  River  Log  Marks,  i-io,  monograms;  ii,  blaze  notch; 
12,  notch  girdle;  13,  scalp;  14,  cross;  15,  notch;  16,  dagger;  17,  cross  girdle; 
18,  diamond;  19,  twenty;  20,  thirty;  21,  umbrella;  22,  saw  horse;  23,  fork;  24, 
straight  S;  25,  flag;  26,  pine  tree;  27,  inverted  A  with  scalps;  28,  fifty;  29,  pot 
hook;  30,  fish  hook;  31,  bar  C;  32,  box  with  ears;  SS,  wild  goose:  34,  sheep 
head;  35,  crow  foot;  36,  double  dagger;  37,  fifteen;  38,  triangle;  39,  star  girdle; 
40,  turtle. 

River  and  its  tributaries,  and  also  in  many  parts  of  the  Appa- 
lachian region.  Brands  are  in  extensive  use  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
where  logs  are  transported  by  water,  but  are  seldom  used  in  the 
interior. 

When  registered^  with  some  designated  state  or  county  ofiicial 

1  "Failure  of  owner  to  comply  with  Compiled  Laws,  section  5083,  providing  for 
the  recording  of  log  marks,  was  only  effective  to  deprive  the  owner  of  the  statutory 
presumption  of  ownership  of  logs  unmarked  with  the  recorded  mark,  and  did  not 
deprive  him  of  his  property  in  logs,  the  title  to  which  he  might  establish  by  other 
means,  including  an  unrecorded  mark  used  by  him."  Whitman  vs.  Muskegon 
Log  Lifting  and  Operating  Co.  Supreme  Court  of  Michigan,  116  Northwestern 
614. 


372  LOGGING 

(the  surveyor-general  in  Minnesota,  in  most  other  states  the 
County  Clerk  of  the  county  in  which  the  head  office  is  located) 
brands  constitute  trademarks  of  the  individuals  registering  them, 
and  their  rights  to  the  timber  so  marked  are  fully  protected  by 
law. 

The  obliteration  or  removal  of  brands  or  bark  marks  ("de- 
horning") is  regarded  as  a  felony  in  most  states.  The  highest 
courts  of  some  states  ^  hold  where  logs  are  presumptively  marked 
according  to  law  and  are  floated  down  a  stream,  that  if  the 
owners  annually  endeavor  to  recover  those  that  sink  and 
become  imbedded  in  the  stream,  such  logs  cannot  be  regarded 
as  lost  or  abandoned  property  whether  the  marks  are  distinguish- 
able or  not. 

Loggers,  therefore,  do  not  lose  their  property  rights  in  lost 
logs  if  originally  they  were  properly  marked  by  the  owner,  and 
he  used  due  diligence  each  year  to  recover  them.  On  the  other 
hand,  according  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Minnesota,-  logs  in 
water  are  abandoned  when  not  in  the  possession  of  or  under  the 
control  of  any  person,  and  which  have  no  distinctive  mark  or 
marks  on  them  that  have  been  recorded  with  the  proper  officials. 
Such  logs  are  the  property  of  the  person  who  collects  them  and 
causes  them  to  be  marked.  These  logs  are  known  as  "prize" 
logs  and  on  union  drives  they  are  divided  in  rotation,  as  they  pass 
the  sorting  gap,  among  the  loggers  having  timber  in  the  stream. 
Where  the  drive  is  conducted  by  a  boom  company  all  prize  logs 
caught  in  the  booms  are  held  as  the  property  of  the  company  and 
sold  at  auction  to  the  highest  bidder. 

B.     SPECIES   THAT   WILL   FLOAT 

Although  the  majority  of  species  indigenous  to  the  United 
States  will  float  to  some  extent,  yet  many  of  them  cannot  be 
transported  successfully  by  water.     The  coniferous  woods  are 

1  See  Whitman  vs.  Muskegon  Log  Lifting  and  Operating  Co.  Supreme  Court 
of  Michigan,  ii6  Northwestern  614. 

2  See  Astell  vs.  McCuish.  Supreme  Court  of  Michigan,  124  Northwestern  Re- 
porter 458. 


FLOATING   AND    RAFTING  373 

the  most  satisfactory  floaters,  but  among  them  there  are  several 
species  such  as  yellow  pine,  green  hemlock,  and  the  butts  of  larch, 
redwood  and  some  other  species  that  can  be  handled  only  with 
indifferent  success.  The  buoyancy  of  hemlock  is  increased  by 
peeling  the  timber  and  allowing  it  to  season  for  a  short  period 
before  placing  it  in  the  water. 

Hardwood  logs,  such  as  basswood,  poplar  and  cucumber,  float 
well  and  can  be  driven  to  advantage,  although  basswood  is 
apt  to  become  discolored,  which  greatly  depreciates  it  in  value. 
Oak,  beech,  maple,  birch  and  other  heavy  hardwoods  can  only 
be  floated  with  difficulty  unless  they  are  especially  prepared 
or  are  rafted  with  lighter  species.  Some  loggers  cut  and  peel 
oak  in  July,  August,  September  and  October,  place  it  on  skids 
near  the  bank  and  allow  it  to  dry  out  for  from  sixty  to 
ninety  days.  It  then  becomes  light  enough  to  float  for  short 
periods. 

Another  method^  is  to  peel  and  season  the  logs,  then  paint 
the  ends  with  two  or  three  coats  of  paint  and  raft  with  lighter 
species.  Holes  also  may  be  bored  into  logs  and  plugged  up 
so  as  to  form  air  spaces  and  increase  the  buoyancy  of  the 
timber. 

White  birch  for  spool  stock  is  sometimes  driven  for  short 
distances  in  Maine.  The  green  timber  will  float  for  a  short 
period,  although  it  is  seldom  put  into  the  water  in  this  condition. 
An  effective  method  is  to  fell  the  trees  during  the  summer 
months  and  leave  the  tops  on  the  trees  until  a  large  amount  of 
moisture  has  been  removed.  Again  the  trees  may  be  felled,  the 
tops  cut  off  and  the  timber  left  in  the  forest  to  season  for  from 
eight  to  twelve  months.  This  method  is  less  satisfactory  than 
the  former  because  the  sap  of  the  logs  stains  badly  during 
summer  months,  if  left  for  long  periods. 

The  following  lists  show  the  relative  floating  ability  of  several 
species. 

1  There  is  a  serious  objection  to  this  method  of  handling  hardwoods  because 
their  value  is  usually  reduced  by  checks  and  incipient  rot.  Hardwood  cut  during 
the  spring  or  summer  must  be  converted  into  lumber  in  a  few  weeks  if  the  best 
results  are  to  be  secured. 


374 


LOGGING 


Good  floating  ability. 

Average  floating 
ability. 

Poor  floating 
ability. 

Spruce 

Yellow  pine 

Oak 

White  pine 

vSweet  gum 

Hickory 

Hemlock  (dry) 

Sycamore 

Birch 

Basswood 

Douglas  fir 

Beech 

Poplar 

Chestnut 

Elm 

White  cedar 

Ash 

Redwood  (except  butts) 

Cherry 

Balsam 

Redwood  (butts) 

Larch  (except  butts) 

Larch  (butts) 

Cypress 

Cucumber 

Labor  employed  on  log  drives  is  chiefly  recruited  from  the 
logging  camps  which  have  ceased  operations  by  the  time  the 
streams  are  in  condition  to  float  timber.  Although  the  work  is 
hard,  the  hours  are  long  and  the  men  are  often  exposed  to  many 
hardships  in  the  pursuit  of  their  work,  there  is  a  certain  glamour 
and  fascination  about  it  which  attracts  forest  workers  and  in  nor- 
mal times  loggers  seldom  have  difficulty  in  securing  a  sufficient 
number  of  men. 

The  labor  in  the  Northeastern  part  of  the  United  States  is 
largely  composed  of  French  Canadians  who  make  admirable 
river  drivers. 

Log  driving  on  small  streams  is  done  largely  from  the  banks, 
except  where  log  jams  occur,  while  on  large  streams  the  work 
must  often  be  done  from  boats  called  bateaux  ^  or  from  the  logs 
themselves.  The  river  drivers  are  often  subject  to  great  per- 
sonal danger  in  freeing  lodged  logs  and  in  breaking  up  jams 
which  form  at  narrow  points  in  the  stream,  or  in  places  where 
the  channel  is  obstructed  by  rocks.  A  "key  log"  around  which 
a  jam  is  formed  must  be  freed  before  the  mass  can  be  started, 
and  this  may  be  done  either  with  tools  or  by  a  charge  of  dyna- 
mite. Only  the  most  skillful  men  are  allowed  to  perform  this 
work,  because  great  presence  of  mind  is  required  on  the  part  of 

1  These  are  strongly  built  boats  with  a  sharp  prow  and  are  fitted  with  two  pairs 
of  oars  and  guided  by  a  single  oar  used  as  a  rudder.  They  have  a  capacity  of 
from  six  to  ten  men. 


FLOATING   AND    RAFTING  375 

the  driver  when  the  logs  start  to  move.  Log  drivers,  espe- 
cially on  rough  water,  are  among  the  highest  paid  men  in  the 
woods. ^  On  small  streams  log  drivers  are  housed  in  log  camps 
or  in  tents,  while  on  river  drives  the  men  frequently  live  in  a 
house  boat  or  a  tent  called  a  ''wanigan,"  which  is  mounted  on 
a  scow  or  raft  and  floated  down  the  stream  as  the  work  proceeds. 
Tents  on  shore  are  also  frequently  used  where  facilities  can  be 
provided  for  moving  them  in  wagons  or  in  boats. 

D.     CONDUCT    OF    THE    DRIVE 

The  Drive  on  Small  Streams.  —  Drives  usually  start  on  the 
upper  courses  of  some  small  stream  where  the  logs  have  been 
"banked"  in  the  stream  bed,  and  parallel  with  it,  or  else  scat- 
tered over  the  surface  of  some  lake  or  pond  near  its  mouth. 
The  "banking  ground"  is  often  above  a  splash  dam  which 
furnishes  sufficient  water  to  carry  the  logs  down  to  the  rear  of 
another  dam  or  to  the  main  stream  on  which  they  are  floated 
to  the  mill. 

As  soon  as  the  ice  has  gone  out  sufficiently  to  clear  the  stream, 
booms  are  placed  in  essential  spots  along  the  channel  and  the 
dams  and  other  equipment  placed  in  good  repair  after  the 
winter  season.  A  head  of  water  is  accumulated  on  the  banking 
ground  and  a  crew  is  set  to  work  to  "break  down"  the  "land- 
ing" or  "bank."-  This  consists  in  setting  the  logs  afloat  in  the 
current  so  they  can  proceed  downstream.  The  sluice  gates  of 
the  dams  are  opened  a  short  while  before  the  logs  are  started 
through  and  should  not  be  closed  until  several  minutes  after 
the  logs  have  ceased  coming,  otherwise  jams  will  form  at  points 
along  the  channel.  The  work  starts  on  the  pile  farthest  down- 
stream and  in  the  center  of  the  channel,  the  logs  from  the  top 
of  the  pile  being  thrown  into  the  water  by  means  of  peavies  and 

1  Log  drivers  in  Maine  receive  from  s$2.25  to  $3  per  day  and  board,  which 
includes  four  meals  per  day.  Drivers  on  the  large  streams  in  the  West  receive 
50  cents  per  hour,  exclusive  of  board,  which  costs  approximately  $5  per  week. 

2  In  the  Appalachian  region,  logs  frequently  are  not  banked  but  are  scattered  in 
the  beds  of  the  streams  where  they  await  a  freshet  to  carry  them  down  the  stream. 
In  such  cases  a  crew  to  break  landing  is  not  required.  Dependence  is  placed  on  the 
current  to  start  the  logs. 


376 


LOGGING 


timber  grapples.  This  continues  until  the  drivers  have  cleaned 
a  channel  wide  enough  to  enable  them  to  roll  the  remaining  logs 
from  the  pile  into  the  stream.  After  having  cleaned  up  one 
section  they  proceed  to  loosen  the  next  section  above,  and  are 
sometimes  obliged  to  explode  a  small  charge  of  dynamite  to 
free  the  logs  which  are  frozen  together.  The  loose  logs  float 
down  to  the  splash  dam  where  they  are  converged  toward  the 
sluiceway  by  bracket  booms.     Drivers  stationed  on  the  latter 


Fig.  113.  —  A  Log  Driving   Crew  at  the  Landing  waiting  for  a  Head  of  Water. 
New  Hampshire. 


keep  the  logs  parallel  to  the  current  and  prevent  them  from 
jamming  when  they  pass  through  the  sluice.  Workmen  armed 
with  peavies  and  pike  poles  ^  are  stationed  at  strategic  points 
along  the  stream  to  prevent  logs  from  becoming  stranded  on 
sand  bars,  and  from  forming  jams  on  rocks  and  in  narrow  places 
in  the  channel. 

1  This  has  an  ash  or  hickory  handle,  from  12  to  20  feet  long,  on  one  end  of  which 
is  attached  a  screw  pike  and  hook.  It  is  very  serviceable  in  controlling  logs  in 
water.  The  screw  pike  when  forced  into  a  log  has  a  tenacious  grip  which  enables 
the  workman  to  exert  a  strong  pull  without  losing  his  hold  on  the  log. 


FLOATING   AND   RAFTING  377 

Jams  and  stranded  logs  can  often  be  moved  by  the  use  of  a 
dog-warp  which  consists  of  two  strong  hooks  attached  near  the 
center  of  a  rope  stretched  across  the  stream.  A  crew  of  three 
or  four  men  is  stationed  on  either  bank  and  by  catching  one  or 
the  other  of  the  hooks  into  logs  the  men  are  able  to  pull  them 
in  either  direction.  The  use  of  dynamite  is  resorted  to  when 
other  means  fail. 

The  drive  on  small  streams  continues  until  all  of  the  logs  have 
left  the  banking  ground.  A  crew  then  starts  to  ''pick  rear/' 
which  consists  in  collecting  all  the  stranded  logs  along  the  stream 
and  in  the  sloughs  and  putting  them  into  the  water  so  that  they 
will  go  out  with  the  drive.  This  work  is  generally  done  by  men 
who  use  timber  grapples  and  peavies  for  carrying  and  dragging 
the  logs.  Horses  are  employed  when  available  and  the  condi- 
tions are  suitable  for  their  use. 

When  the  course  of  the  drive  is  across  a  lake  it  is  necessary 
to  confine  the  logs  in  booms  and  tow  them  to  the  outlet. 

A  limber  boom  called  a  "trap"  or  "catch"  boom  is  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  lake  around  the  mouth  of  the  stream  and  the 
logs  are  confined  in  it  until  a  sufficient  number  are  secured, 
when  the  shore  ends  of  the  boom  are  closed  and  the  raft  is  towed 
across  the  lake.  The  mouth  of  the  stream  is  either  closed  tem- 
porarily or  a  second  boom  is  placed  in  position  at  once.  Where 
the  distance  is  short  and  the  amount  of  timber  to  be  moved  is 
limited,  it  is  "kedged"  or  "warped"  by  "head works"  of  the 
type  shown  in  Fig.  114.  This  consists  of  a  rough  capstan, 
holding  from  300  to  400  feet  of  rope,  which  is  mounted  on  a 
raft,  and  the  latter  attached  at  the  forward  part  of  the  boom. 
A  heavy  anchor  fastened  to  the  free  end  of  the  rope  is  carried 
forward  in  a  boat  and  dropped  in  the  path  of  the  raft.  The 
capstan  is  then  revolved  either  by  man  or  horse  power.  When 
the  raft  reaches  the  anchor,  the  latter  is  lifted  and  again  carried 
forward.  A  headworks  of  this  character  cannot  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage against  a  head  wind. 

Large  quantities  of  logs  are  usually  handled  by  a  "steam- 
warping  tug"  or  "alligator,"  which  consists  of  a  flat-bottomed, 
steel-shod  scow  on  which  is  mounted  a  pair  of  twenty-horse- 


378 


LOGGING 


power  engines  and  a  large  capstan  or  windlass.  The  boats  are 
propelled  either  by  twin  screws  or  side  wheels  and  are  so  con- 
structed that  they  may  be  drawn  overland  on  skids  under  their 
own  power.  When  towing,  a  cable  is  fastened  to  some  con- 
venient tree  on  shore  or  an  anchor  is  thrown  out  several  hun- 
dred feet  in  advance  of  the  raft  and  the  tug  then  run  back  and 
attached  to  the  raft  which  is  advanced  by  winding  up  the  cable 
on  the  capstan.  Under  a  favorable  wind  a  tug  of  this  character 
will  handle  60,000  board  feet  and  under  a  head  wind,  30,000  feet. 


Fig. 


Headworks ' 


used    to    tow 
Maine. 


Log 


Photograph  by  D.  X.  Rogers- 
Raits   across    Small    Lakes. 


The  cost  of  drives  on  small  streams  ranges  from  25  to  30 
cents  per  thousand  feet  for  a  few  miles  up  to  $1.25  for  a  distance 
of  from  30  to  50  miles.  As  a  rule  transport  on  small  streams  is 
more  expensive  per  thousand  feet  per  mile  than  on  large  ones, 
because  of  the  limited  amount  of  timber  handled,  the  rough 
character  of  the  channel,  and  the  greater  number  of  improve- 
ments per  mile  that  are  required. 

Individual  drives  on  small  streams  are  in  charge  of  a  foreman 
who  often  is  the  woods  superintendent,  or  the  boss  of  the  log- 
ging camp  at  which  the  timber  was  cut.  One  or  more  sub- 
foremen  aid  him. 


FLOATING    AND    RAFTING  379 

The  Drive  on  Large  Streams}  —  The  driving  problems  on  por- 
tions of  the  route  are  often  similar  to  those  on  small  streams, 
but  in  general  the  difficulties  incident  to  the  transport  of  logs 
are  not  so  great. 

The  channel  is  wider,  with  longer  stretches  of  smooth  water, 
and  the  greater  volume  of  timber  annually  passing  downstream 
makes  it  practicable  to  improve  the  channel  to  a  far  greater 
degree  than  is  feasible  with  small  streams.  Fewer  men  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  timber  handled  and  the  distance  cov- 
ered are  required,  and  under  normal  circumstances  the  expense 
per  thousand  feet  for  labor  is  less.  A  large  portion  of  the 
driving  work  on  the  average  stream  consists  in  the  prevention 
of  jams  at  curves,  on  sand  bars,  at  rocky  narrows  and  similar 
places,  and  "picking  rear"  after  the  main  drive  has  passed.  On 
many  large  streams  the  banks  for  a  portion  of  the  distance  may 
be  low,  so  that  logs  can  float  out  of  the  channel  into  sloughs  or 
over  land  inundated  during  flood  time,  and  the  drivers  must 
keep  their  booms  in  good  condition  to  prevent  this  and  to  keep 
the  logs  moving. 

Crews  are  divided  into  squads,  under  subforemen,  and  are 
stationed  at  danger  points  along  the  stream.  These  crews  must 
do  much  of  their  work  from  bateaux  or  by  standing  on  logs, 
because  of  the  width  of  the  banks.  In  place  of  "alligators"  and 
"headworks"  powerful  side  wheel,  end  wheel  or  screw  tugs  are 
employed  for  the  transport  of  large  quantities  of  logs  across 
lakes,  or  down  streams  where  it  is  necessary  to  confine  the 
logs  in  booms. 

When  the  head  of  the  drive  reaches  the  first  sorting  gap,  a 
crew  of  men  begins  sorting  and  this  continues  during  the 
summer  and  fall  until  the  logs  are  all  assorted,  the  water  fails 
or  ice  closes  the  river.  If  no  ill  luck  has  attended  the  drive  the 
last  logs  are  usually  down  by  October  first. 

The  drive  on  the  upper  Connecticut  River  originating  on  the 
Wild  Ammonoosuc  in  New  Hampshire  and  extending  to  Bellows 
Falls  (17  miles  on  the  Ammonoosuc  and  93  miles  on  the  Connect- 
icut River)  begins  about  the  first  of  April  and  lasts  from  twenty- 
1  See  page  363. 


38o 


LOGGING 


three  days  to  six  months.  The  average  time  is  about  six  weeks. 
One  hundred  men  are  required  on  the  Ammonoosuc  and  about 
sixty  on  the  Connecticut  River.  The  cost  per  thousand  feet  de- 
livered at  Bellows  Falls  for  the  1909  drive,  which  was  conducted 
under  favorable  conditions,  was  $1.18  per  thousand  feet.  In 
1908  the  cost  was  $1.71  and  in  1907,  $1.40,  while  in  some 
years  it  has  been  nearly  $2  per  thousand  feet.  The  high  cost 
is  due  to  the  rough  character  of  the  Ammonoosuc  channel  which, 
though  fairly  straight,  contains  many  rocks.  The  annual 
cost  of  improving  the  Ammonoosuc  has  been  from  .S500  to 
$700. 

On  the  Penobscot  River  in  ]\Iaine,  the  average  length  of  drive 
is  approximately  150  miles  and  the  longest  drive  which  originates 
on  either  the  North  or  South  Branch  of  the  West  Branch  is 
about  240  miles.  The  average  quantity  of  material  annually 
driven  down  the  West  Branch  is  130,000,000  feet,  about  three- 
quarters  of  which  goes  to  Millinocket,  and  the  remainder  to 
Bangor  and  vicinity.  The  drive  begins  about  April  20th  and 
the  last  logs  reach  the  booms  above  Bangor  about  October 
first.  Approximately  2500  men  are  employed  for  the  first 
six  weeks  and  after  the  logs  reach  the  main  stream  the  force 
is  cut  to  about  200  men,  exclusive  of  those  occupied  at  the 
sorting  gaps. 

The  cost  per  thousand  feet  for  driving  logs  on  various  portions 
of  the  Penobscot  River  has  been  as  follows:  ^ 


Year. 

Locality. 

Distance. 

Cost  per 
1000  feet. 

1903-1912 
1898-1907 
1898-1907 
1898-1907 
I 898-1907 
1898-1907 
1898-1907 
1898-1902 

1898-1902 

Head  of  Chesuncook  lake  to  Shad  pond.  . 
Grand  lake  dam  to  Penobscot  boom.  .  . . 

Haskell  boom  to  Penobscot  boom 

Sebois  river  to  Lincoln 

Miles. 
60 
89 
84 
47 
72 
62 
SI 

120 
59 

$0.70 
.90 
.82 
.66 
.56 

Soldier  brook  to  Penobscot  boom 

Medway  to  Penobscot  boom             .... 

.62 
.80 

Head  of  Chesuncook  lake  to  Penobscot 

boom 
Shad  pond  to  Penobscot  boom.    .          .    . 

1. 17 
.40 

^  "Water  Resources  of  the  Penobscot  River  Basin,  Maine,' 
Survey.     Water  Supply  Paper,  279,  Washington,  1912,  p.  211. 


U.  S.  Geological 


FLOATIXG   AND    RAFTING  381 

The  cost  of  handling  logs  by  the  St.  John  River  Log  Driving 
Company  in  New  Brunswick  for  a  distance  of  214  miles  has  been 
as  follows: 

1906 $1.80  per  1000  feet 

1907 1.90  per  1000  feet 

1908 2.00  per  1000  feet 

1909 2.07  per  1000  feet 

The  cost  of  the  drive  itself,  exclusive  of  the  sorting  and  rafting 
charges,  has  been  26  cents  per  thousand  feet. 

The  Restigouche  Log  Driving  and  Boom  Company,  which 
operates  on  65  miles  of  the  Restigouche  river  in  New  Brunswick, 
handles  approximately  100,000,000  feet  per  year.  The  charges 
for  191 2  were  as  follows:  driving  to  the  boom  limits,  18  cents  per 
thousand;  rafting  charges  for  merchantable  pine  and  spruce, 
55  cents  per  thousand;  undersized  pine  and  spruce,  65  cents  per 
thousand;  cedar,  60  cents  per  thousand.  The  rafts  are  towed 
to  the  mills  by  the  log  owners  at  their  own  expense. 


RAFTING    ON    STREAMS 

Rafting  is  a  common  method  of  handling  logs  on  large  streams 
and  lakes  and  is  practiced  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  The 
motive  power  is  usually  end-wheel  or  side-wheel  steamers  on  small 
bodies  of  water,  and  screw-propelled  tugs  on  large  bodies  of 
water.  Rafts  are  now  seldom  drifted  with  the  current.  The 
advantages  of  rafting  are : 

(i)  It  prevents  loose  logs  from  scattering  and  becoming 
entangled  in  bushes  along  the  banks,  and  from  being  stranded  on 
fiats  submerged  at  high  water. 

(2)  It  enables  the  water  transport  of  nonportable  species 
which  can  be  buoyed  up  by  fastening  them  to  logs  that  can  float. 

(3)  Extensive  booms  are  not  required  at  destination  to  catch 
the  logs  as  they  come  down. 

(4)  It  insures  prompt  delivery  on  lakes  and  other  waters 
where  there  is  no  current  to  carry  the  logs  along. 

(5)  The  Federal  Rivers  and  Harbors  Act  of  March  3,  1899, 
declares  "that  it  shall  be  unlawful  to  float  loose  timber  or  logs 


382 


LOGGING 


in  streams  actually  navigated  by  steamboats  in  such  manner  as 
to  obstruct,  impede,  or  endanger  navigation." 

There  are  a  variety  of  forms  in  which  rafts  are  built,  depending 
on  the  character  of  the  water  on  which  they  are  to  be  towed, 
the  kind  of  timber  rafted  and  on  the  Federal  regulations  ^  gov- 
erning rafting. 

Bag  or  Sack  Booms.  —  These  are  used  on  the  Great  Lakes  and 
on  large,  smooth  rivers.  They  consist  of  a  single  or  double  row 
of  boom  sticks  surrounding  the  impounded  logs.     For  lake  work 


Fig. 


A  Mississippi  River  Lug   Raft,  sliowin; 
End-wheel  Steamers. 


the   Method   of   Control   by 


short  boom  sticks  of  large  size  are  preferable  because  loose  logs 
are  less  apt  to  slip  under  them  than  they  are  under  the  long  ones. 
On  the  Great  Lakes  double  booms  with  connecting  chains  made 
of  i|-inch  iron  are  considered  superior  to  single  booms.  During 
the  period  when  the  exportation  of  logs  was  permitted  by  the 
Provincial  Governments  of  Canada,  immense  quantities  of  white 
pine  were  rafted  to  this  country  and  manufactured  at  points 
along  the  Great  Lakes.     The  season  for  towing  was  from  June  i 

1  The  Federal  government  specifies  the  form,  size  and  character  of  rafts  that 
may  traverse  certain  navigable  waters  and  harbors. 


FLOATING   AND    RAFTING  383 

to  October  15.  The  rafts  contained  from  2,000,000  to  6,000,000 
feet  each,  and  were  handled  by  powerful  tugs.  The  transport 
of  logs  from  Canada  to  the  United  States  ceased  in  1898  when 
an  embargo  was  placed  on  the  export  of  logs  from  Crown 
Lands. 

Rafts  Fastened  with  Poles.  —  The  common  form  of  raft  on  the 
Ohio  River  and  on  some  southern  streams  is  one  in  which  the 
logs  are  made  up  into  raft  sections.  The  logs  in  each  section 
are  attached  to  each  other  by  poles  placed  across  the  logs  and 
fastened  to  them  by  means  of  rafting  dogs.  The  sections  are 
fastened  together  by  cables. 

On  the  Ohio  River  poplar  and  other  logs  are  rafted  in  lengths 
of  from  20  to  60  feet.     The  longer  logs  are  preferred  because 


Fig.  116.  —  Method  of  fastening  Poles  to  the  Logs  by  means  of  Iron  Dogs. 

of  the  greater  ease  in  rafting  and  also  because  the  laws  of 
adjoining  states  allow  a  fee  of  25  cents  per  stick  without  regard 
to  length,  to  all  parties  who  catch  and  hold  logs  for  rafting. 
On  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Big  Sandy  River  floating  logs  are 
caught  and  about  sixty  sticks  are  made  into  a  raft  which  is  from 
eight  to  twelve  logs  wide  and  from  250  to  400  feet  long.  The 
logs  are  bound  together  with  small  poles  20  feet  long  which  are 
placed  at  intervals  of  from  10  to  12  feet.  Rafts  are  equipped 
with  long  sweeps  at  each  end  to  assist  in  guiding  them,  and 
each  one  is  floated  down  to  the  mouth  of  the  stream  in  charge 
of  two  men.  The  owner  makes  from  twelve  to  sixteen  rafts, 
containing  from  700  to  900  sticks,  into  a  fleet  and  takes  it  down- 
stream to  the  mills  under  the  control  of  a  tug.  An  occasional 
fleet  containing  from  1900  to  2000  logs  is  handled  which  is  re- 
garded as  the  maximum  size  practicable. 


384 


LOGGING 


A  modification  of  this  form  of  raft  is  occasionally  used  for 
handling  yellow  pine  in  the  South.  The  rafts  consist  of  sec- 
tions one  log  long  held  together  by  poles  which  are  attached  to 


Photograph  by  R.  B.  Miller. 
Fig.  117.  —  Loading  the  '"Bottom"   of  a  Raft  with  Logs,  by  means  of  a  Par- 
buckle.    A  bracicet  boom  is  shown  cm  the  left.     Xew  Brunswick. 


the  logs  by  a  wooden  plug  driven  into  holes  bored  through  the 
poles  and  into  the  timbers.  Several  sections  are  then  made 
into  a  raft  and  floated  downstream  to  the  mill  under  the  guid- 
ance of  raftmen  w^ho  steer  with  long 
sweeps  or  oars. 

On   some   of   the   streams   in  the 

Northeast    assorted   logs   are   made 

into  rafts   and   towed  to  the  mills. 

The    St.    John    River  Log    Driving 

Fig.  118.  — Method  of  Attaching  Company    of    Fredericton,    New 

Rafting  Poles  to  the  Logs,  by  Brunswick,    makes   up    its  rafts  in 

means  of  Wooden  Pms.  .  ^ 

the  following  way.     The  logs  after 

being  assorted  are  run  into  pockets  according  to  ownership. 
About  thirty  logs  are  fastened  together  at  one  end  with  a  "rat- 
tling line"  which  consists  of  a  cable  on  which  are  strung  the 


FLOATING   AND    RAFTING 


385 


necessary  number  of  ring  dogs.     This  "joint,"  as  it  is  called,  is 

then  floated  out  of  the  pocket  and  down  the  "ratthng  run"  to 

the  "bottom  makers"  who  place  two  boom  poles  across  the  raft, 

and  bore  holes  through  the  boom  poles  and  logs  which  are  then 

fastened  together  with  hardwood  pins.     The  rattling  lines  are 

then  removed  and  the  bottom  passes  down  to  a  loading  machine 

where  a  top  load  of  logs  is  placed  on  the  "bottom."    The  joints 

are  then  scaled  and  floated  downstream  where  from  five  to  seven 

of  them  are  fastened  together  by  short  pieces  of  poles,  called 

brackets,    and  hardwood  pins  and  then  towed  to  the  mifl  by 

tugs. 

For  many  years  rafts   on   the   Mississippi   and   some   other 

rivers  in  the  Lake  States  were  made  into  "brails"  or  sections. 

The  logs  were  fastened  together  with 

poles  in   a  manner   similar  to  the 

Ohio  River  method,  except  that  rope 

and  rafting  pins  were  used  instead 

of  chain  dogs.    Two-inch  holes  were 

bored  in  the  log  on  either  side  of  the 

1            1  ,,             1        r         1       ,          ,'  Fig.  iiq.  — Method  of  fastening 

pole  and  the  ends  of  a  short  section  x,  r^-     r.  1     ^    t       u 

^  Ratting  Poles  to  Logs  by  means 

of  rope  placed  in   these  holes  and     of  Rafting  Pins.    A  method  for- 

firmly     held     by     hardwood     rafting      marly  used   on   the   Mississippi 
pins  driven  in  behind  them.     This        ^'''^^' 
was  an  expensive  method  because  of  the  large  amount  of  rope 
required,  and  it  has  now  been  superseded  by  an  improved  method 
patented  by  an  employee  of  one  of  the  boom  companies. 

The  brails  as  now  made  consist  of  a  set  of  boom  sticks  form- 
ing a  rectangular  pocket  which  is  filled  with  loose  logs.  The 
boom  sticks  are  held  together  by  a  3-link  chain  10  inches  long 
(Fig.  120,  d)  through  the  outer  links  of  which  the  pin  (Fig.  120,  b)  is 
passed  and  then  driven  into  2 -inch  holes  bored  in  each  boom 
stick.  These  pins  are  made  of  oak  and  turned  to  a  minimum 
diameter  of  2  inches  and  a  length  of  11  inches.  The  top  end 
has  a  swell  2j  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  slightly  smaller  swell 
in  the  center.  The  head  is  large  enough  to  prevent  the 
chain  link  from  slipping  over  it  and  the  swell  in  the  center 
binds  on  the  wood  and  holds  the  plug  fast.     A  cable  is  passed 


386  LOGGING 

through  the  center  links  around  the  entire  brail  and  further 
strengthens  it.  The  brail  is  braced  crosswise  with  cables  as 
shown  in  Fig.  120,  a.  Several  links  of  chain  are  fastened,  by 
means  of  a  rafting  pin,  to  the  outer  boom  sticks  on  one  side  of 
the  raft.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  raft  one  end  of  a  special 
cable,  Fig.  120,  c,  is  fastened  to  the  boom  stick  by  a  pin  and 
the  other  end  carried  over  to  the  chain,  which  is  passed  through 
a  flattened  link  and  caught.     This  gives  rigidity  to  the  raft. 


Fig.  120.  —  Details  of  a  Mississippi  River  Log  Raft.  a.  The  method  of  fastening 
the  boom  sticks  together,  and  bracing  them  with  cables,  b.  A  rafting  pin  in- 
serted in  the  outer  links  of  the  chain  d.  c.  The  fixed  end  of  the  cable  which  is 
used  to  strengthen  the  raft.  d.  3-link  chain  through  the  outer  links  of  which 
the  rafting  pins  are  driven. 


The  chains  and  cables  can  be  used  repeatedly  and  hence  are 
cheaper  than  rope  which  can  be  used  but  once.  Rafts  of  this 
character  are  made  up  in  sections,  some  of  them  300  feet  by  750 
feet  in  size,  and  contain  from  850,000  to  4,000,000  feet  of  timber. 
They  may  be  controlled  in  the  stream  by  an  end-wheel  tug  boat 
attached  to  the  stern  of  the  raft.  A  strong  double  winch  is 
placed  on  the  bow  of  the  boat  and  from  this  lines  run  to  each 
forward  corner  of  the  raft.  By  hauling  in  on  one  line  and 
slacking  on  the  other  one,  the  raft  may  be  turned  in  any  direc- 
tion desired.     Two  tugs  often  are  employed,  one  at  the  stern 


FLOATING   AND    RAFTING 


387 


and  one  at  the  forward  part  of  the  raft,  in  which  case  the 
control  of  direction  is  secured  by  the  forward  boat. 

Cypress  Rafts.  —  Cypress  logs,  which  are  skidded  with  pull- 
boats,  are  rafted  down  the  canals  and  bayous.  A  common 
form  of  raft  consists  of  cigar-shaped  sections  from  150  to  200 
feet  long,  each  containing  from  twenty  to  thirty  logs  which  are 
floated  loose  within  the  boom  sticks.  Sinkers  are  placed  be- 
tween floating  logs  and  fastened  to  them  by  poles  and  chain 
dogs.  Old  skidding  cable  is  often  used  to  bind  the  boom  sticks 
together.     A  2-inch  hole  is  bored  in  the  log,  and  the  end  of  the 


Fig. 


A  Cypress  Raft  in  a  Louisiana  Bayou.     The  floating  vegetation  on  the 
extreme  right  is  the  water  hyacinth. 


cable  inserted  and  made  fast  by  a  wooden  plug  driven  in  be- 
hind it.  The  sections  are  fastened  together  by  rope,  and  made 
into  a  long  raft  which  is  towed  to  the  mill  by  small  tugs.  Navi- 
gation is  seriously  hampered  and  sometimes  absolutely  stopped 
by  the, congestion  of  the  watercourses  by  the  water  hyacinth 
and  sometimes  mills  are  forced  to  shut  down  on  account  of  the 
lack  of  logs,  due  to  the  closing  of  the  waterways  by  this  plant. 
Raft  Bundles.  —  In  the  Coastal  Plain  region  logs  are  sometimes 
made  into  bundles  each  containing  two  cars  of  logs  (20  to  30 
logs)  which  are  bound  together  firmly  with  chains.  The  maxi- 
mum tow  for  the  larger  tugs  used  on  this  work  is  from  thirty  to 


LOGGING 


forty  bundles.  From  30  to  40  per  cent  of  the  timber  cannot 
be  floated  and  the  object  of  this  method  of  transportation  is  to 
make  the  floaters  carry  the  nonfloaters.  Bundles  frequently 
have  to  be  made  over  because  of  an  excess  of  heavy  logs  which 


Fig.  122.  —  A  Raft  Bundle  at  the  Mill  Pond.     North  Carolina. 


causes  them  to  sink.  The  bundles  are  constructed  at  a  log  dump 
built  over  some  tidal  stream.  A  cradle  of  two  heavy  cables  is 
used  to  bundle  the  logs.  One  end  of  the  cable  is  fastened  to  the 
railroad  trestle,  and  then  passed  down  under  the  water  and  up  to 


FLOATING   AND    RAFTING  389 

a  winch  located  in  the  second  story  of  the  log  dump.  The  cables 
thus  make  a  large  loop  into  which  the  logs  are  unloaded.  Two 
binding  chains  are  sunk  into  the  water  alongside  each  cable,  one 
end  being  temporarily  attached  to  the  unloading  dock  and  the 
other  end  to  a  small  rope  which  is  placed  outside  of  the  cradle. 
When  the  logs  have  been  placed  in  the  latter,  the  bundle  is  made 
compact  by  tightening  up  the  cradle  cables,  and  the  binding 
chains  are  then  brought  around  the  bundle,  tied  and  made  fast 
by  heavy  iron  dogs. 

Pacific  Coast  Rafting.  —  Logs  in  the  Pacific  Coast  region  are 
often  rafted  down  the  large  streams,  or  towed  along  Puget 
Sound  to  the  mills.  Two  forms  of  rafts  are  employed  for  this 
work.  When  logs  are  to  be  floated  downstream  without  the  aid 
of  a  tug,  they  are  made  up  into  "round"  booms  which  consist 
of  a  group  of  loose  logs  surrounded  by  several  boom  sticks.  The 
raft  is  allowed  to  drift  with  the  current,  and  may  or  may  not  be 
in  charge  of  a  raftsman,  depending  on  the  character  of  the  stream, 
and  the  tides. 

Logs  that  are  to  be  towed  to  destination  are  rafted  at  a  "harbor 
boom,"  which  consists  of  a  large  storage  pocket  and  a  rafting 
pocket.  The  logs  are  brought  to  the  harbor  boom  by  rail  and 
dumped  into  the  storage  pockets  which  consist  of  an  area  in- 
closed by  boom  sticks  held  in  place  by  piling.  The  rafting 
pockets  are  narrow  lanes  about  75  feet  wide  and  from  800  to 
1000  feet  long  inclosed  by  boom  sticks,  held  in  place  by  piling 
placed  at  approximately  70-foot  intervals.  The  logs  may  or  may 
not  be  sorted  for  quality  and  species  previous  to  rafting.  Rafting 
on  tide  water  can  be  carried  on  only  during  a  favorable  tide. 

The  rafters  first  string  boom  sticks  across  the  far  end  and  on 
Tooth  sides  of  the  pocket.  Logs  of  approximately  equal  lengths 
are  then  poled  down  the  run  and  stowed  parallel  to  each  other 
in  the  first  section  of  boom  sticks.  Each  row  is  known  as  a 
"tier,"  and  two  tiers  usually  constitute  a  section  about  75  feet 
square.  As  soon  as  two  tiers  have  been  stowed  logs,  called 
"  swifters,"  are  placed  across  the  end  of  the  section  at  right 
angles  to  the  tiers  in  order  to  keep  the  logs  closely  packed.  The 
gap  is  then  closed  by  a  boom  stick  placed  across  the  opening  and 


390  LOGGING 

attached  to  the  boom  sticks  on  the  outer  side  of  the  raft.  New 
sections  are  then  made  up  in  the  same  manner,  twelve  to  four- 
teen constituting  the  usual  tow.  Two  rafters  can  make  up 
about  six  sections  or  from  260,000  to  300,000  feet  during  a  tide. 

When  the  rafting  is  done  in  rivers  where  there  is  a  strong 
current  a  slightly  different  procedure  is  followed.  The  rafters 
start  at  the  near  end  of  the  rafting  pocket  and  hang  out  three  or 
four  sections  of  boom  sticks.  The  logs  are  then  run  in  the  rafting 
pocket  and  guided  with  a  pike  pole  to  their  place  in  the  "tier." 
Great  difficulty  is  experienced  in  turning  logs  end  on  in  a  swift 
current,  if  they  get  crosswise  of  the  rafting  pocket.  In  case 
piling  is  not  used  to  confine  the  rafts,  each  section  is  kept  from 
spreading  until  completed  by  the  use  of  a  rope  or  cable  also 
called  a  ''swifter"  which  is  fastened  to  the  outside  boom  sticks. 
When  the  sections  are  completed  the  "swifters"  are  removed. 

The  cost  of  unloading  and  rafting  logs  is  approximately  10 
cents  per  thousand  feet,  and  the  cost  of  towing  to  the  mill 
averages  i  cent  per  mile  for  each  thousand  feet. 


OCEAN    RAFTING 

The  first  attempt  at  rafting  logs  for  transport  on  the  high  seas 
was  made  about  1884  when  a  large  raft  was  constructed  in 
Nova  Scotia,  launched  from  shore  and  started  toward  New  York 
in  charge  of  a  tug.  This  raft  was  lost  because  the  tug  left  it 
to  go  into  port  for  coal  and  on  return  to  the  high  seas  was  unable 
to  again  locate  it.  After  a  long  period  it  washed  ashore  on  the 
Norwegian  Coast.  The  same  builder  later  went  to  Coos  Bay, 
Oregon,  where  he  built  two  rafts  for  transport  to  San  Francisco, 
one  of  which  reached  its  destination  safely.  In  the  construction 
of  the  latter  rafts  the  use  of  cradles  or  floating  frames  was  first 
adopted. 

In  1894,  raft  building  began  on  the  Columbia  river,  where  it 
has  reached  its  highest  development.  Several  rafts  now  leave 
annually  for  San  Diego,  California,  with  no  losses  during  recent 
years.  The  rafts  are  built  cigar-shaped  and  from  700  to  1000 
feet  long,  with  a  depth  at  the  center  of  from  30  to  35  feet  and 


FLOATING   AND    RAFTING  391 

a  breadth  of  from  50  to  60  feet.  The  taper  extends  100  feet 
from  each  end. 

Ocean-going  rafts  are  built  in  a  cradle  or  frame  which  is 
moored  to  piling  in  deep  water.  One  side  of  the  cradle  is  de- 
tachable and  when  the  raft  is  completed  it  is  launched  by  dropping 
this  side  and  allowing  the  raft  to  slide  sidewise  into  the  water. 
A  700-foot  cradle  requires  200,000  feet  of  timber  in  its  construc- 
tion, and  costs  about  $5000.  With  minor  repairs  it  can  be  used 
for  an  indefinite  period.  A  derrick  hoisting  engine,  mounted 
on  a  scow,  and  valued  at  $5000  is  necessary  for  stowing  logs  in 
the  cradle.     A  crew  of  five  or  six  raftsmen  is  required. 

The  logs  are  floated  out  to  the  cradle  and,  beginning  at  either 
end  of  the  latter,  the  longest  and  most  pliable  sticks  are  used 
for  the  outer  layers.  These  sticks  should  be  at  least  60  feet 
long  and  are  placed  with  their  butts  toward  the  center  of  the 
raft.  This  gives  a  taper  to  the  body  of  the  raft  and  as  the  logs 
gradually  work  outward  the  binding  chains  are  drawn  tighter. 
The  interior  may  be  filled  with  any  length  logs,  provided  the 
joints  are  broken. 

After  the  raft  has  been  built  up  to  a  height  of  20  feet,  a  21- 
inch  tow  chain  is  laid  from  stem  to  stern  with  50  feet  projecting 
on  either  end  to  which  the  towing  cable  is  attached.  "Herring 
bone"  chains,  made  from  if -inch  iron,  are  then  attached  to 
the  main  tow  chain  on  the  tapering  ends  of  the  raft,  run  diago- 
nally across  the  raft  toward  either  end,  and  fastened  to  the  bind- 
er chains.  This  prevents  the  latter  from  slipping  on  the  conical 
portion  of  the  raft,  distributes  the  pull  of  the  tow  chain  over 
a  large  portion  of  the  stern,  and  also  gives  a  limited  amount  of 
slack  in  the  center,  which  is  essential  to  permit  the  raft  to  bend 
slightly  with  the  action  of  the  waves. 

When  the  raft  is  completed,  binder  chains  made  from  if-inch 
iron  are  placed  entirely  around  it  at  12-foot  intervals  and  are 
tightened  by  the  hoisting  engine.  A  700-foot  raft  containing 
from  4,000,000  to  5,000,000  feet  requires  about  115  tons  of 
chain,  which,  with  accessories,  is  valued  at  $10,000.  A  30-foot 
raft  draws  from  20  to  22  feet  of  water  and  can  be  towed  to 
San  Diego,  1200  miles,  for  $1  per  thousand  feet. 


392  LOGGING 

The  safe  towing  periods  are  from  June  15  to  September  15 
and,  under  favorable  conditions,  the  trip  can  be  made  in  from 
eighteen  to  twenty  days. 

LOG    BARGES 

Barges  are  used  for  the  transportation  of  hardwood  logs  on 
some  portions  of  the  lower  Mississippi  River,  the  logs  being 
brought  to  the  banks  of  the  stream  and  loaded  by  power  derricks. 
Barge  transportation  is  desirable  on  streams  where  suitable 
rafting  facilities  are  not  available  and  with  species  that  are 
too  heavy  to  float.  Although  introduced  in  the  Lake  States, 
this  method  never  gained  much  favor  in  the  transport  of  logs 
from  Canada  to  the  United  States,  because  of  the  limited  capac- 
ity of  the  boats,  and  the  ease  and  safety  with  which  logs  could 
be  rafted. 

SUNKEN    LOGS 

Many  streams,  on  which  driving  has  been  carried  on  for  years, 
have  accumulated  great  numbers  of  small,  heavy  butted  and 
sappy  logs  in  their  channels.  In  the  Lake  States  streams,  which 
contain  immense  quantities  of  sunken  timber,  the  "deadheads" 
average  about  twenty  logs  per  thousand  feet,  log  scale. 

Numerous  efforts  have  been  made  to  salvage  sunken  timber, 
especially  in  this  region,  and  although  log-raising  companies 
have  been  formed  and  have  operated  to  a  limited  extent,  the  in- 
dustry has  never  assumed  large  proportions.  The  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  successful  operation  have  been  numerous.  Accord- 
ing to  a  decision^  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Michigan  the  title  to 
sunken  logs  remains  with  the  original  owners.  Where  several 
hundred  marks  and  brands  have  been  used  on  a  stream,  it  is 
almost  hopeless  for  a  company  to  attempt  to  secure  title  to  all 
the  timber  raised  because  many  of  the  owners  of  given  brands 
and  marks  are  deceased  or  have  left  the  region.  In  addition 
the  log  raiser  must  reckon  with  riparian  owners  which  is  a  further 
drawback  to  the  work. 

There  have  been  numerous  methods  used  in  raising  logs, 
some  of  which  have  been  patented.  On  shallow  streams  they 
1  See  page  371. 


FLOATING  AND   RAFTING  393 

are  often  raised  by  workmen  who  use  pike  poles  and  operate  from 
boats.  The  logs  are  towed  to  land,  where  they  are  stored  until 
thoroughly  dry,  when  they  are  again  put  in  the  stream  and 
rapidly  driven  to  their  destination. 

A  hoisting  engine  with  suitable  booms  and  grapples,  mounted 
on  a  fiat  boat,  has  also  been  used.  The  logs  were  frequently 
rafted  and  kept  afloat  by  steel  tubular  buoys  ^2  feet  long  by  18 
inches  in  diameter  which  were  scattered  throughout  the  raft. 
Occasionally  deadheads  were  attached  to  rafts  of  floating  timber 
and  thus  buoyed  up  until  they  reached  the  mill. 

White  pine  deadheads  have  been  sold  for  as  much  as  $5  per 
thousand  as  they  he  in  the  stream,  although  the  average  price 
is  approximately  $4  per  thousand  feet,  log  scale. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE   TO    CHAPTER   XXII 

A  Digest  of  the  Laws  Relating  to  Logging  which  have  been  Enacted  in  the 

Different  States.     Polk's  Lumber  Directory,  1904-05.     R.  L.  Polk  and  Co., 

Chicago.     Pages  96-150E. 
Barrows,  H.  K.  and  Babb,  C.   C:    Log  Driving  and  Lumbering.     Water 

Resources  of  the  Penobscot  River,  Maine.     Water  Supply  Paper  279,  U.  S. 

Geological  Survey,  Washington,  1912,  pp.  211-220. 
Bridges,  J.  B.:   Definition  of  the  Law  Governing  the  Use  of  Driving  Streams. 

The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  64F  and  64G. 
:   Laws  Governing  the  Use  of  Streams  for   Logging  Purposes 

(Pacific  Coast).     The  Timberman,  August,  1909,  pp.  49-51. 
Fastabend,  John  A.:    Ocean  Log  Rafting.    The  Timberman,  August,  1909, 

pp.  38-39- 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

FLUMES   AND   LOG   SLUICES 

Log  and  lumber  flumes,  and  log  sluices  are  built  to  transport 
lumber,  crossties,  shingle  bolts,  acid  wood,  cordwood,  pulp- 
wood,  mine  timbers  and  saw  logs  from  the  forest  to  mills,  rail- 
roads or  driveable  streams,  and  to  carry  products  from  the 
mill  to  market,  or  to  rail  transport.  They  are  used  to  a  Hmited 
extent  in  every  forest  region,  but  are  especially  serviceable 
where  stream  transportation  is  not  available  and  when  the 
topography  renders  railroad  construction  costly.  They  are  most 
commonly  employed  for  handling  sawed  products,  although  they 
are  now  being  used  in  some  parts  of  the  West  for  transporting 
mine  timbers  and  saw  logs. 

They  have  several  advantages  over  logging  railroads  in  a 
rough  region:  (i)  they  can  be  carried  over  inequahties  in  the 
ground,  or  across  gulches  on  fairly  light  trestles;  (2)  they  can 
be  operated  on  steeper  grades;  (3)  they  occupy  less  space  than 
a  railroad  and  hence  require  smaller  cuts  and  tunnels  and  can 
often  be  located  in  narrow  canyons  where  there  is  not  sufficient 
room  for  a  railroad. 

The  disadvantages  are:  (i)  the  transport  of  crooked  and 
long  logs  is  difficult  and  costly;  (2)  the  light  construction  ren- 
ders them  more  subject  than  railroads  to  damage  by  windstorms, 
fires,  floods,  falling  timber  and  other  natural  agencies,  although 
they  can  be  repaired  more  cheaply;  (3)  they  usuaUy  offer  no 
means  of  transporting  supplies  from  the  railroad  to  the  miU  or 
forest;  however,  in  one  instance  the  edges  of  the  flume  box  were 
used  as  a  track  over  which  railroad  speeders  were  run,  thus 
affording  ready  communication  between  the  two  ends  of  the 
flume;  (4)  the  transport  of  lumber  roughens  the  surface  of 
planed  material  and  also  batters  the  ends  of  the  boards  which 
have  to  be  trimmed  after  leaving  the  water  so  that  planing  mill 


FLUMES    AND   LOG   SLUICES 


395 


work  must  be  done  at  some  point  below  the  flume,  often  leading 
to  increased  cost  of  manufacture. 

LOCATION 

Flume  routes  are  best  located  by  engineers  who  have  special- 
ized on  logging.  The  practice  followed  by  some  successful  flume 
builders  is  to  locate  the  route  with  a  transit  and  set  stakes  as 
for  a  railroad  survey.  Levels  are  then  run  and  plotted  and  the 
grade  line  established,  the  latter  being  the  cut-off  height  of  the 
trestle  bent  which  is  the  bottom  of  the  cap.  Center  stakes  for 
the  bents  are  established  at  proper  intervals,  and  foflowing  this 
the  grade  stakes  are  set  for  the  batter-post  mud-sifls.  The 
data  for  the  base  of  each  trestle  bent  are  calculated  for  the  use 
of  the  constructors,  and  show  the  length  of  the  two  lower  sash 
braces,  the  distance  along  the  batter  posts,  and  the  length 
each  batter  post  must  extend  below  the  first  sash  brace  in  order 
that  the  trestle  may  stand  plumb  on  the  mud-siU.  The  calcu- 
lation of  the  length  of  each  sash  brace  is  important  because 
it  governs  the  batter  of  the  posts  and  if  it  is  not  properly 
calculated  the  spacing  between  the  posts  under  the  cap  will 
vary. 

Careful  consideration  must  be  given  to  curves  and  the  maxi- 
mum degree  of  curvature  must  be  determined  for  the  longest 
material  that  is  to  be  handled.  The  following  table  ^  of  curva- 
tures for  flumes  is  regarded  as  safe. 


Maximum  length 

of  material  to  be 

run. 

Safe  maximum 
degree  of  curva- 
ture. 

Feet. 
8 

40 

60 

80 
100 

Degrees. 
20 
10 

8 
.  6 

4 

Curves  at  the  base  of  steep  grades  should  be  avoided,  because 
jams  will  form  which  will  not  only  damage  the  flume  but  will 

1  From  Lumber  Flumes,  by  Francis  R.  Steel,  Bui.  of  the  Harvard  Forest  Club, 
Vol.  I,  191 1. 


396 


LOGGING 


also  cause  the  lumber  to  leave  it.  The  maximum  degree  of 
curvature  permissible  increases  with  the  grade  but  diminishes 
rapidly  as  the  grade  falls  under  3  per  cent.  The  following 
table  ^  of  minimum  grades  is  considered  safe. 


Degree  of  curve. 

Safe  minimum 
grade. 

Straight 
4  degrees 
6  degrees 
8  degrees 
10  degrees 

Per  cent. 

0.5 
I.O 

1-5 
2.0 

^■5 

The  most  desirable  grades  for  a  straight  flume  are  3  per 
cent  or  more.  Grades  up  to  75  per  cent  may  be  employed  on 
short  stretches,  provided  all  sharp  changes  in  elevation  have 
properly  proportioned  vertical  curves. 


TYPE    OF    BOX 

There  are  two  general  types  of  flume  and  sluice  boxes.  One 
is  V-shaped  and  may  have  a  "backbone"-  which  makes  a  box 
6  or  8  inches  wide  at  the  base,  with  outwardly  sloping  sides. 
The  other  is  known  as  the  box  flume. 

The  choice  of  type  and  size  of  box  depend  on  the  character 
and  size  of  material  to  be  transported,  the  amount  of  water 
available,  and  the  ultimate  use  of  the  water  itself.  In  some 
instances  when  water  from  flumes  is  used  for  irrigation  pur- 
poses, the  box  is  of  larger  size  than  is  required  for  the  sole  pur- 
pose of  transporting  forest  products. 

Lumber  and  log  flumes  rest  on  skids  on  the  ground  or  are 
elevated  on  trestles.  They  sometimes  pass  through  tunnels  or 
cuts  although  these  are  avoided  whenever  possible  because  of 
the  increased  cost  of  construction. 

V-box.  —  This  t}pe  of  box  is  commonly  employed  for  lumber, 
crossties,    small   dimension   stock,    small   round   mine    timbers, 

'  From  Lumber  Flumes,  by  Francis  R.  Steel,  Bui.  of  the  Harvard  Forest  Club, 
Vol.  I,  1911. 

2  A  triangular  strip  fastened  in  the  vertex  of  the  flume  box. 


FLUMES   AND   LOG   SLUICES 


397 


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398  LOGGING 

pulpwood/  and,  when  built  of  large  size,  for  saw  logs.-  With  a 
backbone  it  requires  less  water  than  any  other  type. 

A  box  with  a  vertex  angle  of  90  degrees  is  regarded  as  the 
most  desirable  since  this  angle  permits  the  cheapest  construction 
because  the  joints  can  be  fitted  more  easily  and  the  lumber  used 
to  better  advantage. 

An  objection  sometimes  raised  to  the  use  of  a  V-box  for  the 
transport  of  shingle  bolts  and  like  material  is  that  the  individual 
pieces  are  uneven  in  size  and  weight  and  do  not  all  travel  at  the 
same  speed,  therefore  they  are  apt  to  double  on  low  grades  and 
on  curves. 

The  V-flume  with  a  backbone  is  considered  the  more  desirable 
form  for  a  mixed  cut  of  lumber  and  dimension  stock.  The 
capacity  of  a  flume  of  this  character  does  not  exceed  100,000 
feet  daily,  with  an  average  of  from  40,000  to  50,000  feet. 

The  box  of  a  V-flume  for  lumber  and  crossties  has  sides 
ranging  from  15  to  18  inches  high  and  is  from  30  to  36  inches 
wide  at  the  top  (Fig.  123,  yl  and  B).  The  backbone  when  added 
is  made  from  a  6-  by  6-inch  or  8-  by  8-inch  timber  sawed 
diagonally.  The  side  boards  of  the  box  are  i  inch  in  thickness 
for  sides  up  to  30  inches  in  height,  i|  inches  if  from  30  to 
36  inches  high,  and  2  inches  if  from  36  to  48  inches  high. 
The  cracks  are  battened  with  i-  by  4-inch  or  i-  by  6-inch  strips. 
The  boards  range  in  width  from  8  to  14  inches,  but  are  usually 

1  A  pulpwood  flume  operated  in  the  Adirondack  Mountains  of  northern  New 
York  was  36  inches  across  the  top  and  36  inches  deep.  It  was  supported  on  a 
trestle  which  in  places  was  100  feet  high.  The  flume  was  af  miles  long,  had  a 
capacity  of  sixty  cords  of  18-inch  pulpwood  per  hour,  and  the  bolts  traversed  the 
distance  in  7I  minutes,  dropping  into  a  stream  down  which  they  were  driven  to 
a  pulp  mill. 

2  A  5-mile  log  flume  (Fig.  123,  D)  was  recently  constructed  in  Idaho  with  an 
average  grade  of  11  per  cent,  a  maximum  grade  of  15  per  cent,  and  a  maximum 
curvature  of  20  degrees.  The  box  was  supported  on  trestles  16  feet  apart  with  4-  by 
8-inch  sills,  posts,  and  caps  and  2-  by  6-inch  braces;  5-  by  lo-inch  stringers  with 
2-  by  6-inch  lateral  braces  and  round  pole  supports  in  the  center  of  each  bent; 
4-  by  6-inch  bracket  sills  spaced  from  2  to  4  feet  apart  depending  on  the  weight 
carried  and  the  strength  required  at  loading  points,  and  3-  by  6-inch  braces.  The 
box  was  made  from  2-inch  rough  lumber  with  the  cracks  battened  with  ij-  by 
4-inch  strips.  The  cost  of  the  flume  complete  was  about  $8,000  per  mile.  See 
The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  pp.  42-44-     See  note  on  page  411. 


FLUMES   AND   LOG   SLUICES  399 

from  12  to  14  inches.     The  lengths  are  commonly  16  and  24 
feet. 

Box  Flumes.  —  These  are  used  for  lumber  and  dimension 
stock  (Fig.  123,  C),  shingle  bolts,  pulpwood  and  logs.^  They  are 
more  expensive  to  construct  than  a  V-flume  because  the  greater 
weight  of  water  carried  necessitates  a  heavier  trestle.     Where 


Fig.  124.  —  A  V-Flume  for  transporting  Mining  StuUs.     Montana. 

the  water  supply  is  abundant,  boxes  of  this  character  are  some- 
times used  for  lumber  transport.     A  box  flume-  in  California 

^  See  note  on  page  412. 

-  This  flume  was  started  in  189 1  by  the  Fresno  Flume  and  Irrigation  Company 
for  irrigation  purposes  and  now  is  65  miles  in  length,  connecting  the  sawmill  at 
Shaver  with  the  planing  mill  and  shipping  depot  at  Clovis.  Near  the  head  the 
flume  box  is  rectangular  and  has  sides  12  inches  high  and  a  width  of  48  inches.  On 
the  steep  mountain  pitches  the  sides  are  32  inches  high,  and  on  the  lower  end 
48  inches  high.  The  maximum  grade  is  45  per  cent  and  the  minimum  grade  on 
the  flats  0.5  per  cent. 


400  LOGGING 

transports  300,000  board  feet  daily,  a  quantity  three  times  as 
great  as  the  maximum  for  a  V-flume.  This  increase  is  made 
possible  by  clamping^  from  five  to  six  boards  together  into  a  unit 
which  is  floated  singly  on  the  steeper  grades  toward  the  head  of 
the  flume.  On  the  low  grades  near  the  lower  terminus  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  units  are  "dogged"  together  with  manila 
rope  and  floated  to  destination. 

For  shingle  bolts,  acid  wood,  and  cord  wood  a  box  with  a 
lo-inch  bottom,  20-inch  sides  and  24  inches  across  the  top  is 
sometimes  employed.  In  northern  New  York  a  flume  of  this 
size  handled  sixty  cords  of  spruce  pulpwood  per  hour.  As  a 
rule,  however,  they  are  larger  with  a  base  of  approximately  20 
inches,  sides  from  16  to  20  inches  high  and  a  width  across  the  top 
of  from  30  to  32  inches.  The  boxes  are  supported  on  trestle  work 
similar  to  that  used  for  the  V-flume,  although  the  construction  is 
stronger. 

The  boxes  of  log  sluices  (Fig.  123,  E)  are  of  larger  size  than  those 
for  luniber  flumes  and  carry  more  water.  They  are  used  chiefly 
to  supplement  stream  driving  by  transporting  logs  through  rocky 
gorges  where  an  excessive  amount  of  water  would  otherwise  be 
required  or  where  boulders  prevent  the  profitable  improvement  of 
the  stream  for  loose  driving,  and  for  transporting  logs  over 
stretches  of  streams  whose  banks  are  so  low  that  the  flood 
waters  scatter  the  logs  over  the  lowlands.  They  are  also 
used  in  connection  with  log  haul-ups  to  transport  logs  from 
one  watershed  to  another,  and,  in  some  cases,  to  transport 
logs  directly  from  the  forest  to  the  mill.  They  have  been 
employed  frequently  in  the  Lake  States  and  occasionally  in  the 
Northeast. 

On  account  of  the  large  amount  of  water  they  must  carry  to 
float  logs  and  because  of  the  wear-and-tear  they  receive,  the 
boxes  are  made  of  strong  material  supported  on  cribwork  which 
is  kept  as  near  the  ground  as  is  feasible. 

1  The  clamp  which  is  patented  is  a  bar  of  ^-inch  half-round  iron,  with  a  i-inch 
flat  face  having  recurved  points  at  each  end.  The  boards  are  made  into  piles  with 
the  ends  flush  with  each  other,  a  clamp  is  slipped  over  the  end,  and  a  wedge  driven 
between  two  boards  near  the  center  of  the  unit.  This  drives  the  points  into  the 
outer  boards  and  binds  the  whole  load  together. 


FLUMES   AND   LOG    SLUICES  401 

Sluice  boxes  are  sometimes  made  with  two  thicknesses  of  2-inch 
plank,  the  inner  set  being  surfaced  and  tongued  and  grooved  to 
insure  a  tight  joint,  while  the  outer  set  of  plank  break  joints  with 
the  inner  and  make  a  tight  box.  The  dimensions  of  a  sluice 
of  this  character  built  in  the  Lake  States  for  white  pine  were 
36  inches  in  width  at  the  base,  108  inches  wide  across  the  top, 
and  60  inches  high.  The  water  in  the  sluice  was  controlled  by 
half-moon  gates  (Fig.  102),  located  at  the  mouth  of  storage 
reservoirs. 

TRESTLES 

Trestles  may  be  built  of  round  timber  or  of  2-  by  6-inch  or 
4-  by  8-inch  sawed  material.  Flumes  used  for  transporting  sawed 
material  usually  have  a  trestle  made  from  square-edged  material, 
because  it  can  be  secured  at  the  mill  and  transported  to  the  place 
of  construction  in  the  completed  portion  of  the  flume.  Where 
logs,  pulp  wood,  acid  wood,  and  other  rough  material  are  trans- 
ported from  the  forest  to  the  manufacturing  plant,  round  timber 
from  8  to  1 2  inches  in  diameter  is  often  used  for  trestle  construc- 
tion for  it  can  usually  be  secured  in  the  vicinity,  although  some 
prefer  to  erect  a  portable  sawmill  at  the  head  of  the  flume  and 
manufacture  lumber  for  its  construction. 

Caps  for  round  timber  trestles  are  either  made  from  small 
timber  hewed  on  opposite  faces  to  the  desired  thickness  or  from 
sawed  material.  Stringers  are  usually  made  from  sawed  timber. 
The  braces  for  round  timber  trestles  are  made  from  small 
poles. 

For  square-edged  timber  trestles  caps  are  made  from  2-  by  6-, 
4-  by  4-,  or  4-  by  6-inch  material,  and  stringers  from  4-  by  4-,  4- 
by  6-,  or  6-  by  6-inch  timbers,  the  choice  depending  on  the  size 
of  the  box,  the  distance  between  trestle  bents  and  the  amount  of 
water  carried. 

Braces  for  the  box  are  placed  along  the  stringers  at  2-,  4-,  or 
8-foot  intervals,  depending  on  the  length  of  the  span,  the  form  of 
the  box,^  and  the  strength  required  at  special  points,  such  as 

^  A  V-box  with  a  backbone  for  fluming  lumber  requires  bracing  only  at  8-foot 
intervals,  while  a  box  flume  should  have  braces  everj'  4  feet  on  a  24-foot  span. 
Loading  points  on  log  flumes  are  often  braced  at  2-foot  intervals. 


402 


LOGGING 


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FLUMES  AND   LOG   SLUICES 


403 


loading  stations.     They  may  be  made  from  2-  by  4-inch  joists  or 
from  solid  4-inch  blocks  (Fig.  123,  ^  and  B). 


Fig.  126.  — a  Five  Leg  Trestle  for  Heights  Greater  than  75  Feet. 

A  practical  type  of  trestle^  for  a  lumber  flume  under  75  feet 
in  height  consists  of  two  legs  made  from  2-  by  6-inch  joists, 
doubled  and  braced  (Fig.  125).  For  heights  greater  than  75  feet 
a  trestle  with  five  legs  is  used  (Fig.  126). 

1  Designed  by  F.  M.  Kettenring,  C.  E.,  Vancouver,  Washington. 


404 


LOGGING 


Two  4-  by  6-inch  stringers  rest  on  the  caps  which  are  spiked 
to  the  trestle.  Solid  braces  which  support  the  sides  of  the  V-box 
are  placed  on  the  stringers  at  8-foot  intervals.  The  details  of 
the  brace  and  other  features  of  the  box  are  shown  in  Fig.  123,  A. 


TERMINALS 


Flume  terminals  are  of  several  different  types.     The  choice 
is  dependent  largely  on  the  kind  of  material  handled  and  its 


Fig.  127.  —  The  Terminal  of  a  Log  Flume,  near  the  Deerlodge  National  Forest, 
Montana.     This  t>pe  is  known  as  an  "  elephant." 

disposal  at  destination.  Logs,  pulp  wood  and  rough  stock  are 
often  dumped  into  streams,  thus  obviating  the  necessity  for  any 
special  form  of  terminal. 

On  the  Allen  flume  ^  in  the  Deerlodge  National  Forest  in 
Montana  round  mining  timbers  are  transported  to  a  storage 
depot  where  they  are  loaded  on  cars  and  hauled  to  destination. 
The  flume  is  about  20  feet  high  at  the  dump  and  the  logs  are  shot 
out  onto  rollers  on  a  platform.     These  carry  the  logs  to  the  point 

1  See  note  on  page  413. 


FLUMES   AND   LOG   SLUICES  405 

where  they  are  rolled  onto  cars.  The  water  from  the  flume 
falls  onto  a  waterwheel  which  drives  the  rollers  when  the  latter 
are  thrown  into  gear. 

Another  type  of  terminal,  known  as  the  "elephant,"  is  shown 
in  Fig.  127.  The  flume  forks  several  times  near  the  terminal 
and  forms  branches.  Logs  are  diverted  into  a  given  branch  by 
closing  the  branches  not  in  use,  and  the  logs  are  run  out  to  the 
end  of  the  terminal  and  fall  in  a  rough-and-tumble  heap  below. 

The  type  of  terminal  shown  in  A,  Fig.  128,  is  often  used  when 
lumber  is  dumped  on  platforms  or  loading  stations.  Lumber 
shoots  out  from  the  end  of  the  flume  and  piles  up  on  the  platform 
at  the  base  of  the  terminal.  When  one  side  becomes  filled  the 
shunt  board  is  turned  and  the  lumber  diverted  to  the  opposite 
side. 

A  form  of  terminal  similar  to  B,  Fig.  128,  may  be  used  for 
crossties  and  heavy  timber.  The  timbers  are  removed  by  hand 
from  the  rollers  and  piled  on  the  unloading  platform  or  on  trucks. 

CONSTRUCTION 

The  general  methods  of  constructing  a  V-flume  are  illustrated 
by  one  built  in  Washington  for  the  transport  of  40,000  board 
feet  of  lumber  and  crossties  daily.  The  product  to  be  handled 
ranged  in  length  from  8  to  32  feet. 

The  flume  had  a  maximum  height  of  128  feet,  maximum 
curves  of  8  degrees,  and  a  3  per  cent  grade  on  the  upper  part  and 
0.66  per  cent  on  the  lower  end.  Lumber  floated  at  the  rate 
of  3  miles  per  hour. 

Bents  were  placed  15.75  feet  apart  for  heights  of  65  feet  and 
under,  and  23.5  feet  apart  for  heights  in  excess  of  this.  The 
batter  posts  on  all  trestles  under  75  feet  were  spaced  4  feet  apart 
at  the  cap,  and  for  heights  greater  than  this  5  feet.  The  batter 
in  all  cases  was  i  in  4.  In  the  bent  construction  only  three 
sizes  of  lumber  were  used,  namely,  i-  by  6-inch,  2-  by  6-inch, 
and  2-  by  4-inch,  the  latter  being  used  for  the  fore-and-aft  brac- 
ing. As  a  rule  only  16-  and  24-foot  lengths  were  used,  because 
this  simplified  the  work,  reduced  the  time  lost  in  handling,  and 
very  little  lumber  was  wasted.     A  "select  common"  grade  of 


4o6 


LOGGING 


FLUMES   AND   LOG   SLUICES  407 

lumber  was  used,  which  was  worth  $12  per  thousand.  The 
first  24  feet  of  each  bent  was  framed  on  the  ground,  the  foot  of 
each  batter  post  being  laid  on  or  near  the  mud-sill  on  which  it 
was  to  rest.  Bracing  was  made  from  i-  by  6-inch  and  2-  by 
6-inch  material.  When  ready,  the  bent  was  hoisted  in  place, 
and  set  on  the  mud-sills  by  the  aid  of  a  block  and  tackle  attached 
near  the  top  of  the  nearest  bent.  When  in  position  it  was 
plumbed  up  and  spiked  to  the  mud-sill.  A  2-  by  6-inch  by  16- 
foot  timber  was  then  placed  against  the  outside  of  each  post  and 
securely  nailed  to  it  with  20-penny  spikes.  Fore-and-aft  braces 
(Fig.  125)  were  then  nailed  on  until  the  top  of  the  16-foot  post 
was  reached  when  another  2-  by  6-inch  by  16-foot  timber  was 
set  on  top  of  the  first  post  with  a  lap  of  8  feet  on  the  inner 
one.  More  fore-and-aft  braces  were  then  placed.  The  addi- 
tion of  2-  by  6-inch  by  24-foot  scantling  continued,  with  proper 
bracing,  until  the  cut-off  height  was  reached.  On  the  15.75- 
foot  span  a  block  and  tackle  was  used  on  each  batter  post  for 
elevating  the  material  when  the  height  became  too  great  for 
handing  it  up.  On  the  23.5-foot  span  lines  were  also  hung  on 
the  rear  bent  to  aid  in  raising  the  24-foot  fore-and-aft  braces. 

The  cut-off  point  of  the  bent  was  established  only  when  sev- 
eral hundred  feet  of  trestle  had  been  built.  A  wye  level  was 
then  placed  on  a  staging  built  on  top  of  a  bent  and  the  line  of 
levels  established  by  it.  The  2-  by  6-inch  caps  were  elevated 
and  placed  in  position  as  soon  as  the  posts  were  cut  off. 

Cross-bracing  was  put  on  after  several  hundred  feet  of  trestle 
was  erected  (Fig.  125).  Bents  exposed  to  the  wind  were  also 
strengthened  by  wire  guys. 

The  construction  crew  consisted  of  from  six  to  eight  men,  four 
of  whom  worked  aloft  continuously.  On  low  work  one  man 
handled  and  sent  up  all  lumber  and  another  was  engaged  in 
framing  the  lower  sections. 

The  lumber  was  hauled  as  near  as  possible  to  the  point  where 
it  was  to  be  used,  and  was  sorted  and  piled  where  it  could  be 
reached  with  the  least  delay.  One  man  built  the  boxes  in  16- 
or  24-foot  sections  at  the  upper  end  of  the  flume,  placed  the 
brackets  inside  each  section,  and  placed  it  and  the  4-  by  6-inch 


4o8 


LOGGING 


stringers  and  the  foot  planks  in  the  flume  ready  to  float  to 
the  front.  A  man  walked  the  flume  and  kept  the  material 
moving. 

Two  top  men  at  the  front  placed  the  stringers  and  foot  planks 
in  position,  trimmed  the  boxes,  set  them  in  place,  adjusted  the 
brackets  and  nailed  them  to  the  boxes.  A  crew  of  four  men 
placed  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  1 6-foot  sections  in  ten  hours. 
This  did  not  include  an  8-inch  top  board  on  the  box  which 
was  not  added  until  the  remainder  of  the  flume  box  was  com- 
plete. 

Cost  of  Construction.  —  The  cost  of  flumes  is  governed  by  the 
location  survey  charge,  by  the  labor  charge,  which  depends  chiefly 
upon  the  height  of  the  flume,  by  the  values  of  the  material, 
and  by  the  cost  of  transporting  the  supplies  to  the  flume  site. 


AMOUNTS  OF  LUMBER,  NAILS  AND  DAYS'  LABOR  REQUIRED 

TO   CONSTRUCT   LUMBER  FLUME   TRESTLES   OF 

VARIOUS   HEIGHTS 


Height  in  feet. 

10 

15 

.0 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

Lumber,  board  feet  . 

Nails,  pounds 

Labor,  days 

I  .0 

0.  10 

I  -75 
0. 10 

75 
2.0 
0. 10 

125 

3-75 
0.20 

200 
0.40 

350 
7.0 
0.50 

500 

9-5 
0.60 

600 

IO-5 

0.70 

Height  ia  feet. 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

Lumber,  board  feet  . 

Nails,  pounds 

Labor,  days 

12.0 
1. 00 

1000 
17.0 
1.30 

1300 
20.5 
1.60 

1500 
25.0 
1.90 

1750 
31.0 
2.30 

2000 
3S-0 
2.70 

2150 
40.5 
3- 10 

Height  in  feet. 

85 

90 

95 

100 

105 

no 

115 

Lumber,  board  feet  . 

Nails,  pounds 

Labor,  days 

2350 
47.0 

3-9° 

2550 
5I-0 
4.8 

2750 

S7-0 

5-5 

3000 
61.5 
6.25 

3250 
76.0 
7.00 

3450 
90.0 

7.70 

3850 
112. 0 
9.00 

FLUMES   AND    LOG    SLUICES  409 

The  cost  of  engineering  work  is  from  $100  to  $140  per  mile; 
and  the  cost  of  construction,  including  labor,  material  and  right- 
of-way,  from  $1000  to  $3000.^ 

Labor  on  flume  construction  averages  from  30  to  40  cents 
per  hour  for  men  who  work  aloft  and  from  25  to  27I  cents  for 
ground  men. 

The  number  of  days'  labor,  the  pounds  of  nails  and  the  thou- 
sand board  feet  of  lumber  required  to  build  trestles-  of  specified 
heights  and  of  the  types  shown  in  Figs.  125  and  126  is  given  in 
the  preceding  table. 

The  construction  of  the  box  and  foot-boards  required  68,485 
board  feet  of  lumber  and  approximately  2800  pounds  of  nails, 
per  mile.  The  cost  of  box  construction  averaged  $320  per 
mile. 

The  average  cost  of  short  lumber  flumes  where  high  trestles 
are  not  required  and  no  special  difficulties  attend  the  work, 
does  not  exceed  from  $1200  to  $1400  per  mile;  log  flumes  cost 
from  $6000  to  $8000  per  mile;  and  log  sluices  from  $2000  to 
$4000.  On  the  other  hand  certain  sections  of  a  flume  built  in 
the  Big  Horn  mountains  of  Wyoming  for  bringing  out  crossties, 
mine  timbers,  and  lumber  cost  $9000  per  mile  for  four  miles, 
and  $5000  per  mile  for  an  additional  five  miles.  The  high 
cost  of  construction  was  due  to  the  difficult  engineering  prob- 
lems involved,  including  the  construction  of  two  tunnels,  heavy 
trestles  and  the  building  of  the  flume  along  the  precipitous 
sides  of  gorges. 

Several  box  and  V-flumes,^  in  California,  which  extend  for 
distances  of  from  50  to  70  miles,  have  cost  $5000  and  upward 
per  mile. 

1  See  Lumber  Flumes,  by  Francis  R.  SteeL  Bulletin  of  the  Harvard  Forest 
Club,  Vol.  I,  1911. 

-  Designed  by  F.  A.  Kettenring,  C.  E.  Vancouver,  Washington. 

'  A  V-flume  with  36-inch  sides  and  a  width  across  the  top  of  46  inches  was  built 
in  1899-1900  in  California,  by  the  Madera  Sugar  Pine  Company.  The  flume  was 
originally  53I  miles  in  length  and  cost  $275,000  to  construct,  an  average  of  $5000 
per  mile.  Appro.ximately  5,700,000  feet  of  redwood  lumber  and  2100  kegs  of  nails 
were  used  in  construction.  The  maximum  grades  were  18  per  cent  and  lumber 
traversed  the  flume  at  the  rate  of  6  miles  per  hour.  The  daily  capacity  is  appro.xi- 
mately  100,000  feet. 


4IO  LOGGING 

OPERATION 

The  amount  of  water  required  for  a  flume  depends  on  the  size 
of  the  box,  the  grade  and  the  amount  of  leakage.  On  steep 
grades  a  flume  requires  less  water  than  on  low  grades  because 
the  flume  box  becomes  a  wet  slide  and  the  logs  run  freely  with 
very  little  water.  The  age  of  the  flume  and  the  care  with 
which  it  is  maintained  largely  determine  the  amount  of  leakage. 
Forest  Service  officials  found  that  on  the  Allen  flume  in  Mon- 
tana which  carries  from  5  to  12  second  feet  of  water  the  leak- 
age averaged  0.3  second  feet  per  mile.  They  estimate  that  the 
average  leakage  in  a  flume  in  good  condition,  carrying  5  to  10 
second  feet  of  water,  will  approximate  0.45  second  feet  per  mile. 

Water  is  admitted  from  ponds  or  branch  flumes  at  the  head 
of  the  main  flume  and  also  from  feeders  or  troughs  located  at 
numerous  points  along  the  route.  These  feeders  run  from  the 
main  stream  or  some  of  its  branches.  If  the  water  supply  is 
limited,  every  effort  is  made  to  keep  the  flume  box  tight  to 
prevent  waste.  This  is  not  so  essential,  however,  where  water 
can  be  turned  in  at  frequent  intervals. 

The  products  are  placed  in  the  flume  boxes  by  various  means. 
Sawed  lumber  and  crossties  are  usually  shunted  into  the  flume 
from  an  incline  at  the  tail  of  the  mifl.  Pulp  wood  and  acid  wood 
are  frequently  rolled  or  thrown  into  the  box  from  skidways  or 
floated  in  from  ponds;  while  logs  may  be  rolled  in  from  skidways, 
floated  in  from  artificial  storage  ponds,  or  elevated  by  log  loaders. 
The  use  of  ponds  is  the  simplest  and  cheapest  method,  while 
the  use  of  a  log  loader  is  the  more  expensive. 

Flumes  are  operated  by  crews  that  feed  the  flume;  by  runners 
who  are  stationed  at  points  along  the  route  where  jams  are  apt 
to  occur;  and  by  laborers  who  handle  the  product  at  the  ter- 
minal. The  runners  usually  carry  a  pick-a-roon  to  aid  in  han- 
dling the  floating  material.  The  size  of  crew  required  depends 
entirely  on  the  character  of  the  flume,  those  with  many  curves 
and  low  grades  requiring  the  most  runners. 

On  the  Allen  flume  in  Montana,  which  is  about  16  miles  long, 
thirty  flume  tenders  are  required  for  handling  about  3500  mining 
stulls  and  logs  daily.     Four  men  feed  the  flume  and  twenty-six 


FLUMES   AND   LOG  SLUICES 


411 


men  patrol  it,  the  greater  number  being  required  where  the  flume 
crosses  the  Continental  Divide  on  a  very  low  grade.  The  daily 
cost  of  operation  is  $90,  an  average  of  77^  cents  per  thousand 
feet. 

On  the  American  Gulch  flume  ^  in  the  same  section  five  men 
are  required  on  a  flume  about  one  mile  long.  Two  men  feed 
the  flume  and  three  men  act  as  patrols.  The  daily  run  averages 
from  800  to  1 1 00  mining  stulls  and  the  cost  of  operation  varies 
from  80  to  95  cents  per  thousand  feet. 

A  box  log-flume,  in  Oregon,  three  and  one-half  miles  long, 
handles  an  average  of  150,000  feet  daily.  Ten  men  are  required 
to  operate  the  flume  and  the  cost  is  25  cents  per  thousand  for 
labor  and  5  cents  per  thousand  for  depreciation. 

NOTES  TO   CHAPTER   XXIU 

Page  398.  The  log  flume  shown  in  Fig.  1 23,  D,  requires  the  following  material  per 
mile  for  construction  where  the  trestle  legs  are  7  feet  in  length. 


LUMBER 

NAILS 

Purpose  for  which  used. 

Quantity. 

Size. 

Quantity. 

Mud  sills: 

Posts 

Caps 

Board  feet. 
13,200 
19,140 
9,240 
7,260 
6,600 
42,240 

18,480 
7.09s 
23,880 
96,800 
17,600 
2,640 
10,560 
11,265 

286,000 

1 2  penny 

16  penny 

Pounds. 

1700 

1075 

390 

3625 

Lateral  braces 

Total 

Stringers 

Brackets: 
Sills 

6790 

Braces 

Arms 

Box  boards 

Waste  in  construction.  .  . 
Total 

Page  399.  .\  box  flume  3I  miles  long  for  the  transportation  of  logs  is  in  use  in 
Oregon.  The  problem  confronting  the  operator  was  to  transport  timber  out  of  a 
roUing  plateau  region  down  to  a  mill  several  miles  distant.  Owing  to  the  rough 
character  of  the  country  the  cost  of  railroad  construction  was  prohibitive.  The 
engineering  problems  encountered  were  not  easy  to  solve  because  the  water  supply 
during  the  lowest  stages  did  not  exceed  100  miners'  inches  and  extraordinary 
efforts  had  to  be  made  to  conserve  it.  Some  canyons  from  which  timber  was  to 
1  See  note  on  page  413. 


412 


LOGGING 


be  transported  had  no  available  water  in  them  and  it  was  necessary  to  build  the 
flume  from  one  watershed  to  another  to  get  the  timber  out. 

The  preliminary  work  consisted  of  a  survey  of  the  whole  route  and  a  very  careful 
determination  of  the  levels.  The  construction  work  was  begun  at  the  mill  and 
carried  forward  each  year  as  required  to  secure  the  requisite  amount  of  timber. 
The  first  section  of  the  flume  was  built  nearly  on  a  dead  level,  but  as  the  work 
progressed  a  grade  of  i  inch  in  loo  feet  was  given. 

The  natural  gradient  greatly  exceeded  that  given  to  the  flume  and  it  was  neces- 
sary to  build  the  latter  in  three  units,  each  ending  in  a  V-shaped  chute  which  led 
from  the  flume  to  a  pond  at  a  lower  elevation.  These  ponds  were  about  75  by  100 
feet  in  size  and  were  located  at  points  where  the  natural  conditions  favored  their 
construction.  They  not  only  served  as  a  storage  reservoir  for  water  and  a  point 
for  the  change  in  grade  of  the  flume  but  also  as  a  place  for  logs  to  enter  the  flume. 

The  grade  line  was  kept  as  near  the  ground  as  possible  in  order  to  avoid  expen- 
sive trestle  work  and  cuts.  However,  some  cuts  could  not  be  avoided  and  trestles 
had  to  be  built  when  the  flume  crossed  canyons  or  other  depressions. 

The  flume  box  was  constructed  of  2-  by  1 2-inch  plank  and  was  6  feet  wide  and 
4  feet  deep,  except  on  sharp  curves  where  it  was  wider.  The  normal  depth  of  the 
water  was  3I  feet.  Trestles  were  built  of  sawed  timbers  and  braces  of  the  same 
size  timbers  were  placed  along  the  box  at  3-foot  intervals.  A  running  board 
extended  along  one  side  of  the  box  for  the  use  of  flume  tenders.  Lumber  for 
building  the  flume  was  cut  in  a  portable  mill  which  was  kept  as  near  the  actual 
construction  point  as  was  practicable.  This  reduced  the  charge  for  transport  of 
flume  material.  Each  flume  unit  was  provided  with  three  lift  gates  suspended 
from  the  center  of  a  beam  which  was  supported  by  two  upright  posts  placed  on 
either  side  of  the  flume.  One  gate  was  used  for  the  control  of  the  water  and  the 
other  two  for  emergency  purposes.  Should  an  accident  happen  to  the  gate  in 
use,  or  a  log  become  jammed  in  it,  one  or  both  of  the  others  could  be  closed  and  a 
waste  of  water  prevented.  The  gates  were  opened  by  lifting  them  with  a  lever 
until  they  cleared  a  2-inch  cleat  nailed  across  the  bottom  of  the  flume  when  the 
force  of  the  water  raised  them  to  a  horizontal  position.  They  were  then  supported 
by  2-  by  4-inch  joists,  which  were  placed  across  the  flume. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year  an  abundance  of  water  was  available  and  a  slight 
current  was  created  in  the  flume  by  keeping  open  a  small  extra  gate.  During  this 
season  the  logs  were  floated  loose  and  only  an  occasional  man  was  needed  to  keep 
them  moving  and  to  prevent  jams.  In  the  summer  and  fall  the  water  was  at  a  low 
stage  and  the  logs  were  dogged  together  in  strings  of  from  50  to  75  (10,000  to  15,000 
feet,  log  scale)  and  were  towed  along  the  flume  by  a  man  who  traveled  the  running 
board.  The  opening  of  the  large  gates  also  created  an  artificial  current  which 
assisted  in  keeping  the  logs  moving.  The  tow  was  kept  as  near  the  gate  as  possible 
and  when  the  latter  was  opened  the  logs  were  rushed  through  to  get  the  maximum 
benefit  from  the  accumulated  head. 

The  flume  was  built  at  a  cost  of  $3,000  per  mile  and  it  is  estimated  that  with 
minor  repairs,  it  will  last  for  fifteen  years. 

It  will  handle  a  50-inch  log,  or  two  30-inch  logs  side  by  side,  except  where  the 
latter  pass  through  the  gates.  The  logs  run  three  to  the  thousand  feet,  log  scale,  and 
the  average  daily  capacity  of  the  flume  is  150,000  feet.  Twenty-four  million  feet 
have  been  handled  in  seven  and  one-half  months. 


FLUMES   AND   LOG   SLUICES 


413 


Page  404.  The  Allen  flume  has  a  34-inch  V-shaped  box,  the  angle  at  the  vertex 
being  63  degrees.  The  box  is  made  of  six  boards  16  feet  long,  five  of  which  are 
2^  by  II  inches,  and  the  sixth  25  by  12  inches.  The  cracks  are  battened  by  i-  by 
4-inch  strips.  A  6-  by  6-  by  6-inch  backbone  is  fitted  into  the  vertex.  The  box  is 
supported  on  trestle  work,  composed  of  4-  by  4-inch  uprights,  braced  diagonally 
with  two  2-  by  4-inch  timbers,  on  top  of  which  is  a  4-  by  4-inch  cap.  The  trestles 
range  in  height  from  2  feet  to  72  feet,  the  longest  one  being  775  feet.  The  flume 
box  is  braced  by  2-  by  4-inch  timbers  placed  against  the  sides  of  the  box  and 
supported  by  other  timbers  of  the  same  size.     These  timbers  rest  on  the  caps. 

Water  is  supplied  both  from  a  reservoir  at  the  head,  and  by  numerous  flume 
feeders  placed  along  the  route  which  is  about  15  miles  in  length. 

The  grade  varies  from  0.5  per  cent  to  12.5  per  cent. 

There  are  twenty  rock  cuts  from  8  to  20  feet  in  depth  and  one  tunnel  685  feet 
long. 

The  flume  has  a  capacity  of  3500  logs  daily,  an  average  of  116,000  board  feet. 

The  fluming  season  is  about  five  and  one-half  months. 

The  cost  of  construction  was  approximately  S4000  per  mile,  and  at  the  end  of 
four  years  $500  per  mile  were  expended  in  repairs  on  ten  miles  of  flume. 

Page  411.  The  American  Gulch  flume,  approximately  i  mile  in  length,  in  the 
Deerlodge  National  Forest  in  Montana,  has  a  30-inch  V-box  which  is  chiefly  sup- 
ported on  stringers  laid  on  the  ground.  Very  few  trestles  are  employed.  The 
flume  can  handle  mining  stulls  15  inches  in  diameter  and  from  14  to  16  feet  long. 
Thirty-three  thousand  feet  of  lumber  at  $24  per  thousand  delivered,  and  2755 
pounds  of  nails  were  used  in  the  construction  of  the  box.  Seven  men  built  a  mile 
of  flume  in  twenty  days  at  the  following  reported  cost  per  mile. 


Supplies  and  labor. 


Lumber: 

Stumpage  at  $4.00 

Logging,  manufacture  and  hauling  at  $24 

Nails: 

2755  pounds  at  5  cents,  deliv^ered 

Labor: 

I  man  at  $4  per  day $  4 .  00 

6  men  at  $3  per  day 18 . 00    $22 . 00 

20  days'  labor  at  $22 

Total  per  mile 


$132.00 
792.00 

138.00 


440 . CO 


$1502.00 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE  TO   CHAPTER   XXIH 


Robertson,  J.  E.:    The  Log  Flume  as  a  Means  of  Transporting  Logs.     The 

Timberman,  August,  1909,  pp.  45-46. 
Starbird,  W.  D.:  Flumes.     The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  pp.  42-44. 
Steel,  Francis  R.:    Lumber  Flumes.     Bulletin  of  the  Harvard  Forest  Club, 

Vol.  I,  1911. 


PART    V 

SUMMARY  OF  LOGGING  METHODS  IN 
SPECIFIC   REGIONS 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

A.     PORTABLE    MILL    OPERATIONS 

Although  the  annual  cut  of  a  portable  mill  ranges  only  from 
several  hundred  thousand  to  a  few  million  feet,  the  industry  is 
of  importance  because  of  the  large  number  of  plants  in  operation 
many  of  which  handle  timber  in  regions  where  large  mills  are 
not  feasible. 

As  a  rule  the  portable  operations  in  New  England  are  con- 
ducted as  a  side  line  by  men  engaged  in  the  retail  lumber  busi- 
ness; by  contractors  who  can  use  their  idle  teams  during  the 
winter  season;  by  men  who  engage  in  lumbering  as  a  specula- 
tion when  an  opportunity  presents  itself;  and  by  small  wood- 
working plants  which  are  able  to  secure  occasional  stands  of 
timber  suitable  for  their  needs.  Contract  work  both  in  logging 
and  manufacture  is  common  and  the  product  is  usually  sold  to 
railroad  companies  in  the  form  of  crossties  and  structural  tim- 
bers; to  retail  lumbermen  in  the  form  of  lumber;  to  telephone 
and  telegraph  companies  in  the  form  of  poles;  or  to  various 
woodworking  industries.  The  business  is  more  active  during 
the  fall  and  winter  months  when  agricultural  and  other  out- 
door occupations  are  slack,  because  labor  and  teams  are  more 
plentiful  and  a  snow  bottom  reduces  the  logging  expense, 
especially  for  skidding. 

In  the  National  Forests  of  the  West  the  tendency  is  for  port- 
able mill  operators  to  conduct  their  operations  continuously, 
except  for  interruptions  due  to  climatic  conditions.  These  oper- 
ations are  conducted  largely  in  the  virgin  forests  often  several 
miles  from  a  railroad  and  under  conditions  that  are  not  favorable 
for  the  development  of  large  plants.  The  products  of  these 
mills  are  used  locally  by  settlers,  by  mines  and  by  other  indus- 
trial enterprises. 

Portable  plants  are  common  in  the  yellow  pine  region  of  the 
417 


4i8  LOGGING 

South.  They  are  sometimes  located  on  small  isolated  tracts  of 
virgin  timber  but,  as  a  rule,  they  follow  large  plants  operating 
on  the  lightly  culled  lands,  and  old-field  stands.  While  a 
portion  of  the  product  is  marketed  locally,  large  quantities 
are  sold  through  the  larger  operators,  or  through  wholesalers 
or  commission  men, 

LOGGING  METHODS  —  NEW  ENGLAND  ^ 

The  operations  in  New  England  are  conducted  chiefly  on 
woodlots  containing  from  fifty  to  several  hundred  thousand 
feet.  The  operation  may  be  confined  to  manufacturing  the 
stumpage  on  a  contract  basis  for  the  owner,  or  a  sawmill  man 
may  buy  the  timber  outright. 

A  common  practice  is  for  the  sawmill  man  to  make  an  esti- 
mate of  the  property  and  offer  a  specified  sum  for  the  timber. 
Few  care  to  buy  on  the  thousand-foot  basis  because  the  chance 
of  making  a  large  profit  is  lessened.  A  common  method  of  esti- 
mating in  Connecticut  is  for  the  prospective  purchaser  to  exam- 
ine the  tract  and  make  a  rough  ocular  estimate.  The  purchaser 
seldom  contemplates  paying  stumpage  on  the  cordwood,  relying 
on  revenue  from  this  source  as  an  added  profit.  Some  take 
one-quarter  acre  sample  plots  and  calculate  the  amount  of 
timber  from  the  data  thus  secured.  It  was  formerly  easy  to 
purchase  stumpage  on  the  buyer's  estimate  because  woodlot 
owners  seldom  had  any  conception  of  the  amount  and  value  of 
the  timber,  but  in  recent  years  many  owners  have  hired  men  to 
cruise  and  value  their  timber. 

Well-located  stumpage  in  the  vicinity  of  New  Haven,  Con- 
necticut, now  brings  approximately  the  following  prices :  Chest- 
nut saw  timber,  $5  per  thousand  board  feet;  standard  crossties, 
10  cents;  30-foot  poles,  $1.25;  red  and  black  oak  saw  timber 
from  $6  to  $8  per  thousand;  and  white  oak  from  $10  to  $12 
per  thousand. 

A  common  practice  in  logging  virgin  timber  is  to  go  over  the 

^  See  "Second  Growth  Hardwoods  in  Connecticut,"  by  Earle  H.  Frothingham. 
Bulletin  96,  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


LOGGING  METHODS  419 

tract  several  times,  removing  certain  products  at  a  given  cut- 
ting. Chestnut  telephone,  telegraph  and  electric  light  poles 
are  taken  out  first.  Piles  are  often  cut  from  the  tops  of  pole 
timber,  if  there  is  a  market  for  this  class  of  material.  If  there 
is  large  oak,  ship  timbers  are  generally  removed  next,  being  cut 
in  long  logs  which  are  later  sawed  into  flitches  at  the  mill.  The 
remaining  timber  is  then  converted  into  saw  logs,  the  trees 
being  utihzed  down  to  a  6-inch  top  diameter. 

Crossties,  which  are  cut  in  8-foot  lengths  in  the  woods  and 
sawed  into  squared  and  pole  ties,  are  made  in  large  quantities 
from  short-bodied  trees  and  large  limbs. 

Following  the  removal  of  all  saw  material  comes  the  cutting 
of  cordwood.  The  residue,  down  to  hmbs  one  and  one-half 
inches  in  diameter,  may  then  be  cut  up  into  material  for  char- 
coal manufacture.  Near  favorable  markets  practically  all  of 
the  wood  is  utihzed,  except  small  branches. 

The  sawmill  plant  is  set  up  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
operation  where  an  open  space  can  be  secured  for  log  and  lumber 
storage  and  where  a  water  supply  for  the  boiler  is  convenient. 
Camps  are  seldom  established. 

The  felling  crews,  which  work  several  days  in  advance  of  skid- 
ding, are  composed  chiefly  of  foreigners  and  from  one  to  two 
saw  crews  of  three  men  each  are  required.  A  three-man  crew 
consists  of  a  spotter  and  two  fallers.  The  spotter  selects  the 
trees  to  be  felled  and  notches  them,  lays  off  lengths  on  the  felled 
timber,  and  aids  the  fallers  in  swamping.  Saws  and  axes  are 
used  for  felhng.  The  wages  for  a  spotter  are  about  $2  per  day 
and  for  fallers  from  $1.50  to  $1.75.  A  three-man  crew  will  fell 
and  buck  from  4000  to  5000  feet  daily.  The  contract  price  for 
felling  and  log-making  ranges  from  $1.25  to  $2  per  thousand 
feet. 

Pole  cutting  is  done  by  contract  at  a  cost  of  from  i  to  i| 
cents  per  running  foot  for  felling  and  peeling.  Peeling  can  be 
done  more  readily  in  summer  and  pole-cutting  contracts  can  be 
let  at  that  season  for  about  25  per  cent  less.  Some  buyers, 
however,  refuse  to  take  summer-cut  timber  because  of  the 
greater  liability  of  insect  attack. 


420  LOGGING 

Hewed  ties  are  seldom  made  because  of  the  waste  in  manufac- 
ture. When  cut,  they  are  made  by  contract  at  from  9  to  10 
cents  each  for  chestnut  and  12  cents  for  oak. 

Cordwood  is  cut  and  piled  by  contract,  the  price  ranging 
from  90  cents  to  $1.25  for  a  standard  cord,  an  average  being 
about  $1. 

The  logs  are  snaked  on  steep  slopes,  and  then  hauled  on  a 
log-boat,  or  on  a  "scoot"  to  the  mill.  These  are  used  on  short 
hauls  even  when  there  is  no  snow  on  the  ground.  A  log-boat  is 
about  6  feet  long,  3  feet  wide,  and  has  a  fiat  bottom  made 
of  heavy  planks  which  are  upturned  in  front.  A  bunk  is  placed 
about  4  feet  from  the  front  end  and  on  this  the  fore  end  of 
the  log  is  loaded  and  bound  with  chains,  while  the  rear  end  drags 
on  the  ground.  The  horses  are  hitched  to  a  chain  which  passes 
through  the  upturned  nose  and  is  attached  to  the  bunk.  A 
tongue  is  not  used.  The  scoot  is  a  sled  having  two  runners 
about  12  feet  long,  with  a  4-foot  gauge,  a  forward  and  rear 
bunk,  and  a  standard  length  tongue.  It  is  especially  service- 
able for  short  logs  which  are  loaded  on  the  sled.  Wagons  are 
not  used  to  transport  logs  to  the  mill  unless  the  haul  is  greater 
than  I  mile. 

The  usual  log  requirements  of  a  portable  mill  are  from  5000  to 
7000  feet,  log  scale,  daily,  and  on  short  hauls  two  teams  can  bring 
in  this  amount.  The  average  days'  work  on  an  g-mile  haul  is 
about  3500  feet  per  team. 

The  contract  skidding  prices  are  about  $1.50  per  thousand  for 
a  maximum  haul  of  |-mile,  and  $2  for  a  j-mile  haul  for  saw  logs; 
crossties  5  cents  each,  and  posts  2^  cents  each  for  the  shorter 
haul.  The  average  cost  of  logs  delivered  at  the  mill,  exclusive 
of  the  stumpage  value,  ranges  from  $2.75  to  $4  per  thousand 
board  feet. 

Skidding  and  hauling  charges  are  seldom  separated  for  poles. 
On  a  3-mile  haul,  with  wages  and  team  hire  at  $5  per  day,  the 
cost  of  skidding  and  hauling  25-  and  30-foot  poles  is  28  cents  each; 
35-foot  poles  42  cents  each;  and  40  or  45-foot  poles  83  cents 
each. 

Cordwood  can  be  hauled  3  miles  for  about  $1.75  per  cord. 


LOGGING  METHODS  42 1 

COLORADO 

The  portable  mill  operations  in  this  state  are  taken  as  a 
type  of  small  operations  in  the  National  Forests.  The  mills 
are  often  several  miles  from  a  small  town  at  rather  high  eleva- 
tions in  the  forests  where  the  topography  is  rugged  and  the  snow 
is  deep  during  the  winter  season. 

The  stand  is  largely  of  small-sized  timber,  with  logs  averaging 
from  10  to  12  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end,  and  from 
three  to  four  and  one-half  16-foot  logs  per  tree,  when  cut  to  a  top 
diameter  of  6  inches. 

The  closeness  of  utilization  depends  largely  on  the  local  mar- 
kets, and  the  purpose  for  which  the  timber  is  used.  On  some 
sales  where  waney-edge  boards  can  be  used  for  packing  cases 
and  other  rough  work,  very  little  waste  occurs,  while  on  other 
sales  where  the  demand  is  for  lumber  only,  the  mill  waste  is 
heavy. 

The  logging  season  depends  on  the  climatic  conditions  and  the 
character  of  bottom.  Felling  and  skidding  usually  begin  some- 
time between  the  middle  of  June  and  the  first  of  August  and 
continue  until  the  first  or  the  middle  of  January  when  snow 
becomes  too  deep  for  profitable  work.  Hauling  on  some  opera- 
tions begins  at  the  time  of  felling,  the  logs  being  handled  on 
wagons,  carts  or  go-devils  up  to  the  time  snow  falls,  and  after 
that  sleds  are  used  until  the  end  of  March  or  the  middle  of 
April.     On  other  operations  logs  are  hauled  only  in  winter. 

Camps,  which  cost  from  $300  to  $400  on  operations  of  average 
size,  are  of  log  or  board  construction  and  comprise  a  cook  shanty, 
a  bunk  house,  a  stable  and  possibly  a  few  other  buildings.  Labor 
is  chiefly  local. 

Felling  and  Log-making.  —  The  methods  employed  are  similar 
to  those  of  other  regions,  the  ax  being  used  to  notch  the  timber 
and  the  saw  for  felling.  The  work  is  done  both  by  day  labor 
and  by  contract. 

The  wage  for  sawyers  is  about  $2.75  per  day,  while  the  contract 
prices  range  from  $1.25  to  $2  per  thousand  feet,  depending  on 
the  size  and  character  of  the  timber  and  the  amount  of  swamping 


422  LOGGING 

required  of  the  sawyers  and  the  depth  of  snow.  The  actual  cost 
of  sawing  Engelmann  spruce  is  a  little  lower  than  for  lodgepole 
pine  because  it  cuts  more  readily;  but  no  difference  is  usually 
made  in  the  contract  price.  On  one  sale  where  the  sawyers  cut 
off  the  limbs,  lopped  the  tops,  and  scattered  the  brush  the  con- 
tract was  $1.25  per  thousand  for  timber  running  about  fifteen  and 
one-half  logs.  Efficient  crews  of  two  men  cut  about  5000  feet 
daily,  while  others  cut  as  low  as  4000  feet. 

On  another  sale  where  the  fallers  worked  singly  at  felling  and 
bucking,  the  contract  price  was  $1.75  per  thousand  including 
the  swamping  work.  Each  man  averaged  from  2000  to  2500 
feet  daily.  Another  logger  in  the  same  region  paid  $2  per 
thousand  for  the  same  work. 

Swamping  is  usually  done  by  a  member  of  the  skidding  crew, 
one  man  being  assigned  to  each  team.  Since  the  Forest  Service 
requires  that  the  brush  shall  be  scattered  or  piled  the  swamping 
expense  is  increased.  The  cost  of  brush  disposal  on  small  opera- 
tions depends  largely  on  the  species,  the  depth  of  snow,  the 
amount  of  dead  material  and  young  growth,  the  steepness  of  the 
slopes  and  the  character  of  the  bottom.  Timber  with  many 
limbs  such  as  Engelmann  spruce  and  lodgepole  pine  necessitate 
more  cutting  and  handling  than  most  other  species,  hence  brush 
disposal  is  more  expensive.  Snow  from  18  to  24  inches  deep 
makes  brush  disposal  disagreeable,  and  seriously  hampers  the 
work.  Where  dead  material  is  found  among  young  growth 
the  piles  must  be  made  where  reproduction  will  not  be  injured 
during  brush  burning  and  where  down  timber  will  not  be  ignited. 
Men  are  hampered  in  getting  around  on  steep  slopes  and  rough 
ground  and  hence  brush  disposal  is  more  costly.  As  a  rule, 
brush  piling  and  scattering  on  small  operations,  if  properly  done, 
each  cost  from  30  to  50  cents  per  thousand  feet.  Sawyers 
sometimes  do  the  swamping  and  piling  during  the  summer  and 
fall  for  an  advance  of  from  25  to  30  cents  per  thousand. 

Skidding.  —  The  movement  of  the  logs  from  the  stump  to  the 
mill  is  performed  either  in  one  or  two  operations.  On  good 
bottom  and  short  hauls  the  logs  are  either  skidded  directly  to  the 
mill  or  else  hauled  on  sleds  or  carts  over  inexpensive  roads. 


LOGGING   METHODS  423 

About  500  board  feet  constitutes  a  load  under  the  latter  con- 
dition. The  choice  of  methods  depends  on  the  season  of  the 
year.  In  rough  sections  and  for  distances  greater  than  ^-mile 
the  logs  are  usually  yarded  to  skidways  and  then  hauled  on 
wagons  or  sleds  to  the  mill.  On  rough  and  steep  places  a  single 
horse  is  used  for  skidding,  while  on  favorable  bottoms  two  horses 
are  employed. 

On  one  operation  yarding  with  one  horse  to  a  skidway  not 
more  than  200  feet  distant  costs  about  75  cents  per  thousand 
with  an  additional  sled  haul  charge  of  $1.49  per  thousand  for 
distances  up  to  f -mile.  On  another  operation  where  single  teams 
were  used  with  carts  in  summer  and  sleds  in  winter,  the  cost  of 
haul  was  $3  per  thousand  for  a  maximum  distance  of  |-mile 
and  an  average  haul  of  |-mile.  On  an  operation  which  yarded 
its  logs  to  skidways  and  hauled  on  sleds  for  an  average  distance 
of  j-mile,  the  cost  of  logging  was  as  follows: 


Felling  and  bucking. 

Brush  disposal 

Swamping 

Skidding 

Logging  roads 

Hauling 

Camp  depreciation.  , 

Total 


Cost  per  1000 
board  feet. 


.S3. 


The  men  were  boarded  in  a  camp  run  by  the  company.  The 
rate  was  75  cents  per  day  with  free  bunk  house  privileges,  the 
laborers  furnishing  their  own  bedding. 

On  another  operation  where  the  skidding  distance  averaged 
150  feet  and  the  average  haul  was  three-eighths  of  a  mile,  the 
contract  price  delivered  at  the  mill  was  $5  per  thousand,  as 
follows : 


Felling,  bucking,  swamping  and  brush  disposal. 
Yarding  and  hauling 

■Total 


Cost  per  1000 
board  feet. 


$2.00 
3.00 


$5- 00 


424  LOGGING 


B.     NORTHEAST 


Period  of  Logging.  —  Operations  are  usually  confined  to  a 
period  of  from  twenty-six  to  thirty-two  weeks,  beginning  in  the 
late  summer  and  closing  during  the  early  spring.  Where  rail- 
road transport  is  used  summer  logging  is  practiced. 

Labor.  —  The  labor  is  composed  chiefly  of  French  Canadians 
and  Europeans.  The  men  are  generally  employed  by  the  month 
and  are  furnished  board  and  lodging.  The  average  camp  crew 
consists  of  about  sixty  men. 

Camps.  —  The  buildings  usually  are  log  structures  which  house 
from  fifty  to  sixty  men,  and  from  twenty-five  to  forty  horses. 
Camps  are  used  for  two  or  three  seasons  and  then  abandoned  or 
else  used  as  storehouses.  Board  camps  are  used  chiefly  on  rail- 
road operations.  Supplies  are  hauled  in  on  sleds  or  wagons 
where  rail  transport  is  not  available.  Workmen  do  not  bring 
their  families  into  camp. 

Topography  and  Bottom.  —  The  topography  of  the  region 
ranges  from  rolling  to  rough,  and  the  bottom  is  often  covered  with 
a  heavy  growth  of  underbrush.  The  steep  slopes  are  usually 
rocky.  The  rolling  land  provides  a  good  bottom  for  animals. 
Swamps  are  common  in  the  region  and  usually  have  to  be  logged 
during  the  winter  season. 

Felling  and  Log-making.  —  The  practice  is  to  fell  the  timber 
with  the  saw  and  ax.  The  boles  are  cut  into  standard  lengths  for 
saw  logs,  and  into  long  logs  when  the  timber  is  to  be  manufac- 
tured into  pulpwood,  although  occasionally  pulpwood  timber  is 
cut  into  4-foot  lengths  for  ease  in  handling.  The  fallers  work  in 
crews  of  two  or  three  men  and  cut  and  make  into  logs  from 
5000  to  8000  feet  of  timber,  daily.  Spruce  pulpwood  is  some- 
times peeled  in  the  forest. 

Skidding.  —  Animal  logging  predominates  in  the  region,  al- 
though a  few  cableway  skidders  have  been  used  in  New  England 
on  difficult  logging  chances.  Snaking  machines  have  been 
employed  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  the  mountains  of  northern 
New  York.  Yarding,  on  operations  where  a  sled  haul  is  used, 
begins  early  in  September  and  continues  until  the  snow  gets  too 


LOGGING   METHODS  425 

deep  for  profitable  felling,  which  is  usually  during  the  latter  part 
of  December.  Logs  are  decked  on  skidways  along  two-sled  roads 
and  are  either  dragged  to  the  yard  by  a  single  animal  or  a  team, 
or  else  hauled  on  a  yarding  sled.  A  skidding  and  a  felling  crew 
of  seven  men  can  cut  and  skid  from  5000  to  7000  feet  daily  on 
a  |-mile  haul  when  a  team  and  yarding  sled  are  employed  for 
moving  the  timber. 

Chutes  and  log  slides  are  occasionally  employed  on  some  opera- 
tions to  bring  logs  down  steep  slopes. 

Transportation.  —  Logs  are  usually  transported  from  the  skid- 
ways  to  a  landing  on  a  stream  on  a  two-sled  drawn  by  two  or 
four  horses,  or  on  a  yarding  sled  when  the  haul  does  not  exceed 
^-mile.  Steam  log  haulers  are  frequently  substituted  for  animal 
draft  on  long  hauls.  The  logs  are  floated  out  of  the  small  streams 
during  the  early  spring  freshets  and  are  driven  down  the  large 
streams  during  the  summer. 

Railroad  operations  are  not  common,  but  where  rail  transport 
is  used  logs  are  yarded  and  hauled  on  sleds  to  the  railroad  during 
the  winter  months,  and  yarded  directly  to  the  railroad  during 
the  summer. 

Flumes  have  been  used  in  a  few  instances  for  bringing  pulp- 
wood  from  the  forest  to  a  stream  down  which  it  is  driven. 

The  common  form  of  transporting  logs  to  the  mill  is  by  float- 
ing. Rafting  is  practiced  only  after  the  logs  are  sorted  on  the 
lower  stretches  of  the  stream.  Drives  are  conducted  largely  by 
incorporated  companies. 

COST   OF   OPERATION 


General  camp  expense. 

Toting  supplies 

Road  making 

Yarding 

Hauling 

Camp  construction.  . . . 
Water  transport 

Total 


Cost  per  1000  board  feet. 

$   .gotoS 

•90 

•  15  to 

•15 

.30  to 

■40 

2  .  00  to      2 

■50 

I  .  GO  to      I 

■SO 

.06  to 

.  IG 

I  .  GO  to      2 

.GO 

$5.41  to  $7.55 


426  LOGGING 

C.     LAKE    STATES  —  WHITE   PINE 

Period  of  Logging.  —  Railroad  operations  are  conducted 
throughout  the  year  unless  suspended  on  account  of  snow.  When 
logs  are  transported  on  sleds  to  streams  down  which  they  are 
driven,  the  season  is  from  thirty  to  thirty-six  weeks  long,  be- 
ginning in  the  late  summer  and  ending  with  the  termination  of 
hauhng. 

Labor.  —  The  laborers  are  chiefly  Swedes,  Norwegians,  Finns, 
Austrians  and  Poles.  Foremen  are  often  native-born  Americans. 
The  wage  basis  of  payment  is  common. 

Camps.  —  On  railroad  operations  camps  are  often  board 
structures  although  log  buildings  are  also  used.  The  latter 
are  employed  almost  exclusively  on  operations  where  the  logs  are 
hauled  on  sleds  and  floated  down  streams.  Workmen  are 
boarded  and  housed  by  the  operator. 

Topography  and  Bottom.  —  The  topography  varies  through- 
out the  region.  In  some  sections  the  land  is  flat,  more  often  it 
is  rolling  and  "pot  holes,"  which  present  difficult  logging  prob- 
lems, are  common.  The  brush  is  often  dense  in  the  forest 
where  the  pine  is  mixed  with  hardwoods,  while  in  pure  stands  of 
pine  the  undergrowth  is  usually  scanty. 

Felling  and  Log-making.  —  This  work  is  performed  by  a  crew 
of  two  or  three  men  who  operate  under  the  direction  of  a  saw 
boss.  Low  stumps  are  cut  and  the  bole  is  taken  to  a  top  diam- 
eter of  about  4  inches.  Logs  are  generally  cut  into  standard 
lengths.  The  daily  output  of  a  crew  of  two  men  is  from  6000 
to  10,000  feet,  log  scale,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  timber. 

Skidding.  —  Animal  logging  is  predominant.  Several  meth- 
ods are  used  for  bringing  logs  to  the  skidway  which  is  either 
along  a  railroad  or  a  sled  road.  For  small  logs  and  for  distances 
of  from  300  to  400  feet  snaking  is  common  while  for  large  logs 
and  rough  bottom  go-devils  are  employed.  Logs  are  snaked 
for  500  or  600  feet  on  snow  bottom.  High-wheeled  carts  are  used 
by  some  operators  for  logging  to  a  railroad  in  summer,  when 
hauling  for  distances  from  \-  to  §-mile.  In  winter  logging, 
swamps  are   crossed  and  often  hauls  of  |-mile  are  made  by 


LOGGING  METHODS  427 

means  of  a  jumbo  dray,  the  logs  being  snaked  out  to  the  roads 
and  then  hauled  directly  to  the  skid  way  along  the  railroad. 
Steel-spar  cableway  skidders  (p.  197)  are  now  used  on  some 
hardwood  and  hemlock  operations. 

Transportation.  —  Railroads  are  the  chief  form  of  transport. 
During  the  spring,  summer  and  fall  the  logs  required  daily  are 
yarded  directly  to  the  railroad  and  loaded  on  cars.  The  winter 
supply  of  logs  is  either  decked  along  the  railroad  or  else  yarded 
at  more  remote  spots  and  then  hauled  to  the  railroad  on  two- 
sleds.  There  are  only  minor  interruptions  of  railroad  traffic 
due  to  snowfall.  The  use  of  two-sleds  for  hauling  logs  to  a  stream 
down  which  they  are  floated  is  less  common  than  formerly, 
because  of  the  high  value  of  the  white  pine  stumpage  and  the 
large  amounts  of  heavy  hardwoods  which  are  now  being  logged. 

Steam  log  haulers  (p.  172)  are  common  in  the  Lake  States  on 
sled  hauls,  sometimes  bringing  the  logs  directly  to  the  mill. 

Cost  of  Logging.  —  The  following  costs  were  those  incurred  on 
a  white  pine  operation  during  1909.  The  railroad  haul  was 
14  miles,  7  on  a  logging  road  and  7  on  a  trunk  line.  The  logs 
were  snaked  to  the  railroad,  loaded  with  a  crosshaul,  and  hauled 
at  once  to  the  mill.  The  daily  output  of  the  camp  was  from 
200,000  to  210,000  feet,  log  scale. 


Felling 

Skidding  and  swamping. 

Loading 

Railroad  construction.  . 
Railroad  operation 

Total 


Cost  per  1000  board 
feet. 


S    .  38  to  $    .  45 

1 .00  to    1 .50 

.20  to       .25 

.60  to       .75 

■45  to       .50 

S-'.63        $3-45 


D.     SOUTHERN    YELLOW   PINE 


Period  of  Logging.  —  The  year  round. 

Labor.  —  White  and  colored.  The  former  provide  the  more 
skilled  labor  and  the  latter  the  unskilled,  although  colored 
laborers   occasionally   occupy   positions   of   responsibility.     On 


428  LOGGING 

some  operations  in  the  northern  part  of  the  region,  whites  are 
employed  exclusively. 

Camps.  —  They  are  composed  chiefly  of  portable  houses  in 
which  the  loggers  and  their  families  reside.  A  general  store, 
church  and  school  house  are  usually  provided.  Car  camps 
may  be  used  when  famihes  are  not  furnished  accommoda- 
tions. 

Topography  and  Bottom.  —  In  the  southern  part  of  the  region 
the  country  is  flat  or  rolling,  while  on  the  northern  edge  it  is 
usuaUy  broken.  The  bottom  in  the  longleaf  forests  is  generally 
free  from  brush,  while  in  the  loblolly  and  shortleaf  forests  there 
is  often  a  heavy  undergrowth. 

Felling  and  Log-making.  —  This  is  customarily  done  by  a 
two-man  crew  which  uses  a  saw  and  an  ax.  The  daily  output  is 
from  7500  to  15,000  feet,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  timber 
and  the  stand  per  acre.  Contract  work  prevails.  Where  ani- 
mal skidding  is  used  logs  are  cut  in  standard  lengths,  while 
where  power  skidding  is  employed  they  are  cut  in  lengths  rang- 
ing from  24  feet  up  to  the  entire  merchantable  bole.  Sometimes 
only  the  tops  are  cut  from  the  trees  and  the  bole  is  brought  to 
the  mill  and  there  cut  into  logs. 

Skidding.  —  Animal  logging  predominates  throughout  the 
region,  although  the  snaking  system  (p.  204)  is  common  in  the 
flat  pineries,  and  occasionally  a  cableway  skidder  (p.  196)  is 
used.  So  far  as  is  known  the  slack-rope  system  is  not  employed. 
The  favorite  method  of  animal  logging  is  to  ''snake"  the  timber 
for  short  distances,  and  to  move  distant  logs  with  bummers, 
high  carts  or  wagons.  When  standard  length  logs  are  handled 
bummers  are  a  favorite  vehicle  for  the  shorter  distances,  and 
4-,  6-,  or  8-wheeled  wagons  for  long  distances.  High  wheeled 
carts  are  preferred  for  long  logs,  and  are  often  employed  for  short 
logs  on  hauls  of  800  feet  or  less. 

Transport.  —  The  almost  universal  form  of  long-distance  trans- 
port of  logs  from  the  forest  to  the  mill  is  by  railroad,  because  of 
the  continuous  operation  of  the  plant,  lack  of  suitable  streams 
for  driving  and  the  weight  of  the  timber.  Where  streams  are 
available,  floating  is  practiced  to  a  very  limited  extent  by  some 


LOGGING   METHODS 


429 


of  the  smaller  operators;  however,  the  loss  from  sunken  timber 
is  from  25  to  33  per  cent. 

Cost  of  Logging.  —  The  following  table  shows  the  cost  of  animal 
logging,  during  191 1,  on  a  flat  bottom  where  the  stand  averaged 
from  10,000  to  12,000  feet  per  acre.  The  railroad  haul  for  two- 
thirds  of  the  output  did  not  exceed  6  miles,  and  for  the  re- 
mainder was  about  20  miles. 


Logging: 

Cutting 

Swamping 

Hauling 

Feed 

Spur  construction 

Fuel. 

Loading  on  cars 

Repairs  (locomotives  and  cars) . 

Main-line  expense 

General  expense 

Manufacture: 

Sawmill 

Dry  houses  and  yards 

Log  pond 

Sales  expense 

Planing  mill 

Trucking  and  loading 

Discount 

Sundries 


Total  cost,  exclusive  of  stumpage. 


$0 


445 
062 

590 
205 
605 
055 
346 
133 
136 
359 


$2,936 


395 
122 
074 
485 
833 
690 
172 
139 


$6.910 

$9,846 


The  average  sale  value  of  the  product  f.o.b.  mill  was  $15.30. 

On  another  operation  where  the  stand  averaged  5100  feet  per 
acre,  the  topography  was  rolling,  the  main-line  railroad  haul  was 
10  miles  and  the  logs  were  moved  on  wagons,  the  cost  for  the 
year  1909  was  as  follows: 


Logging: 

Cutting  and  hauling 

Loading  on  cars 

Railroad  construction  and  operation.  . 
Manufacture: 

Sawmill 

Drying,  stacking  and  hauling 

Depreciation  on  stock  (6  per  cent) .  .  .  . 

Planing  and  shipping 

Sundry  expenses,  insurance,  etc 

Total  cost,  exclusive  of  stumpage. 


Cost  per  1000  board 
feet. 

$1,892 

.189 

I.  131 

$3,212 

1.564 

1.025 

.566 

1.164 

1.067 

5.386 

$8,598 

The  average  sale  value  f.o.b.  mill  was  $13.03. 


430  LOGGING 


E.    CYPRESS 


Period  of  Logging.  —  The  year  round. 

Labor.  —  The  unskilled  labor  is  composed  of  negroes,  Creoles 
and  Mexicans,  and  the  skilled  labor  of  whites.  Contract  work 
prevails. 

Camps.  —  Floating  camps  built  on  scows  are  used  on  pullboat 
operations,  and  permanent  board  camps  on  railroad  operations. 

Character  of  Bottom.  —  The  bottom  on  many  of  the  swamps  is 
covered  with  water  during  a  portion  of  the  year,  although  there 
are  many  "islands"  and  other  extensive  areas  which  are  seldom, 
if  ever,  submerged,  where  railroad  camps  may  be  located.  The 
timber  grows  both  on  the  wet  ground  and  on  the  higher  eleva- 
tions.    The  bottorh  is  too  soft  for  animal  logging. 

Felling  and  Log-making.  —  The  timber,  which  is  girdled  or 
deadened  some  weeks  or  months  in  advance  of  felling  and  log- 
making,  is  felled  and  made  into  logs  with  the  ax  and  saw.  Work- 
men are  paid  by  the  log,  tree  or  thousand  feet  cut.  A  crew  of 
two  men  will  fell  and  make  into  logs  from  7500  to  10,000  feet 
of  timber,  daily.  Timber  is  cut  to  a  minimum  diameter  of  8 
inches  in  the  top. 

Skidding.  —  Three  methods  are  employed. 

(i)  Hand  Logging.  —  During  low  water  the  timber  is  deadened 
and  later  felled.  Creeks  or  lanes  from  50  to  150  feet  wide  are 
cut  through  the  forest  with  reference  to  the  current  during  flood 
time.  When  the  swamp  is  covered  with  from  5  to  6  feet  of 
water  the  logs  are  "poled"  out  to  the  creeks  down  which  they 
are  floated  to  a  rafting  station,  where  they  are  rafted  and  towed 
to 'the  mill. 

(2)  Pullboat  Logging.  —  A  slack-rope  skidding  device  (page 
208)  is  mounted  on  a  scow  and  moored  in  a  canal,  bayou  or  lake 
to  which  logs  are  dragged  for  distances  of  from  3500  to  5000  feet. 
They  are  then  rafted  and  towed  to  the  mill.  The  daily  output 
is  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  logs. 

(3)  Cableway  Skidding  and  Rail  Transport.  —  A  cableway 
skidder  (p.  196)  is  placed  alongside  a  spur  or  main-line  track  and 
logs  are  yarded  to  the  railroad  from  distances  of  from  600  to 


LOGGING   METHODS 


43^ 


800  feet.     They  are  then  loaded  on  cars  and  transported  to  the 
mill.     The  daily  output  is  from  30,000  to  40,000  feet  per  skidder. 

Transport.  —  Floating  and  railroading  are  the  two  methods 
employed. 

(i)  Floating.  —  The  logs  are  made  into  cigar-shaped  units 
about  125  feet  long  and  several  of  them  are  joined  together  into 
a  raft  and  towed  to  a  mill. 

(2)  Railroad.  —  Main  lines  are  usually  built  on  piling.  Spur 
roads,  which  are  located  approximately  |-mile  apart  are  "dun- 
nage" roads  (p.  283).  Light-weight  engines  and  skeleton  cars 
are  employed.  Logs  are  loaded  on  cars  by  a  special  device  on 
the  skidder. 

COST   OF  OPERATION 


Pullboat  operation: 

Deadening 

Felling  and  log-making 

Sniping 

Road  cutting 

Pullboating 

Rafting 

Superintendence 

Towing 

General  expense 

Total  cost 

Railroad  operation: 

Deadening 

Felling  and  log-making 

Skidding  and  loading 

Spur  construction 

Main-line  construction 

Operating  charge  (railroad) 

Skidder  repairs 

General  expense  and  superintendence 

Total 


Cost  per  1000  board 

feet. 

fo.08  to  $0.12 

50  to      .50 

16  to      .16 

1 

25  to    2.50 

I 

25  to    1.60 

06  to      .06 

10  to          .12 

50  to    1 .  00 

25  to      .25 

$6.31 


to  $0.11 


5°  to 

■so 

00  to 

1.20 

50  to 

.60 

20  to 

■  .^0 

50  to 

.60 

13  to 

.18 

50  to 

.70 

$3.44      $4.19 


F.     NORTHWEST 

Period  of  Logging.  —  The  year  round. 

Labor.  —  Logging  is  highly  speciahzed  and  requires  a  large 
number  of  skilled  men  among  whom  are  found  natives,  Swedes 
and  Norwegians.    Unskilled  labor  is  foreign  and  consists  of  the 


432  LOGGING 

two  nationalities  mentioned  and,  in  addition,  men  from  southern 
Europe. 

Camps.  —  Either  car  camps,  board  camps  or  portable  houses 
are  used  to  shelter  the  men.  Families  seldom  reside  in  camp. 
Laborers  are  housed  and  boarded  by  the  logger. 

Topography  and  Bottom.  —  The  region  ranges  from  rolling  to 
rugged  and  in  many  sections  difficult  logging  problems  are 
encountered.  Underbrush  is  heavy  in  the  coast  forests  where 
rainfall  is  abundant. 

Felling  and  Log-making.  —  FeUing  and  log-making  are  done  by 
separate  crews.  Fallers  who  work  in  crews  of  two  may  or  may 
not  do  the  notching.  Two  log  buckers  who  work  alone  are 
required  for  each  crew  of  fallers.  Logs  are  cut  in  even  lengths 
of  24  feet  or  more. 

Yarding.  —  Power  logging  is  now  almost  universal,  the  slack- 
rope  system  (p.  208)  being  the  predominant  form.  A  few 
cableway  skidders  (p.  196)  are  in  operation  and  are  gaining  in 
popularity  for  handling  small  and  medium-sized  timber. 

Animal  logging  is  found  only  on  small  operations  where  the 
"chance"  is  favorable  and  the  output  limited. 

Transport,  (i)  Road  Engine.  —  A  road  engine  sometimes 
takes  logs  from  the  yarding  engine  to  a  stream  or  railroad 
(p.  218).     This  practice  is  less  common  than  formerly. 

(2)  Locomotive.  —  A  geared  locomotive  may  be  employed  to 
drag  the  logs  over  the  crossties  to  a  landing  along  the  railroad 
(p.  220). 

(3)  Railroad.  —  The  most  desirable  practice  is  to  place  the 
yarding  engines  along  the  logging  railroad.  Logs  are  loaded 
on  fiat  or  skeleton  cars  or  log  trucks  and  hauled  to  the  mill,  to 
a  driveable  stream,  or  to  tide-water.  When  yarding  engines 
are  employed  cars  are  loaded  with  jacks  or  with  a  gin-pole,  and 
when  the  cableway  skidder  is  used  the  logs  are  loaded  with  a 
special  device  provided  for  that  purpose.  Cars  are  unloaded 
by  hand  methods,  log  dumps,  or  other  special  unloading 
devices. 

(4)  Rafting.  —  Logs  are  usually  rafted  and  are  seldom  floated 
singly  to  the  mill. 


LOGGING  METHODS 


433 


(5)  Flumes.  —  These  are  occasionally  employed  for  bringing 
logs  from  the  forest  to  the  railroad  or  some  stream. 

(6)  Chutes.  —  Chutes  and  shdes  are  in  frequent  use  in 
some  sections  for  bringing  logs  down  steep  slopes  and  for 
handling  logs  on  bottom  that  cuts  up  badly  in  dry  weather. 
Three-pole  and  five-pole  chutes  are  in  most  common  use 
(P-  233). 

(7)  Aerial  Tramways.  —  These  are  employed  to  bring  logs 
from  high  elevations  to  lower  ones,  especially  on  very  rough 
ground. 

Cost  of  Logging.  —  The  average  daily  output  and  the  cost 
per  thousand  feet  for  yarders  operating  900  feet  of  line  are 
given  below.^  The  costs  refer  only  to  the  yarding  work  and 
are  based  on  a  labor  expense  of  $26  per  day  and  a  per  diem 
allowance  of  $10  for  upkeep  of  machinery,  blocks,  rigging, 
lines  and  other  equipment. 


Average  log 

Amount  yarded 

Cost  per  1000  board 

content. 

daily. 

feet  for  yarding. 

Board  feet. 

Board  feet. 

2000 

90,000 

$0.40 

1750 

78,750 

45 

1500 

67,500 

Si 

1250 

62,500 

59 

1000 

55, 000 

65 

750 

41,250 

87 

500 

32,500 

I 

12 

250 

22,500 

I 

60 

A  road  engine  operating  for  3000  feet  can  handle  the  output 
of  two  yarding  engines.  The  crew  consists  of  five  men,  namely, 
one  engineer,  one  fireman,  one  wood-buck,  one  grab-setter  and 
one  chaser.  When  a  road  engine  handles  the  output  of  two 
yarding  crews  the  cost  per  thousand  feet  is  approximately  as 
follows,  allowing  $32.50  per  day  for  labor,  deterioration  of  ma- 
chinery and  road  upkeep. 


See    the   American    Lumberman,    Chicago,    Illinois,    September    24,    19 10, 


p.  46. 


434 


LOGGING 


Average  log 

Cost  per  1000  board 

content. 

feet  for  hauling. 

Board  feet. 

2000 

$0.18 

1750 

21 

1500 

25 

1250 

26 

1000 

30 

750 

40 

500 

50 

250 

70 

If  only  one  machine  is  yarding  to  the  road  engine  the  cost  will 
be  approximately  85  per  cent  higher. 

The  total  cost  of  logging  on  an  average  Douglas  fir  operation 
is  approximately  as  follows: 


Felling  and  bucking 

Yarding  and  loading 

Railroad  transportation  (logging  road) 

Railroad  transportation  (trunk  line) 

Booming 

Scaling ■ 

Sales  expense  for  logs 

Repairs,  renewals,  maintenance,  insurance.... 

Railroad  construction 

Depreciation 

Supervision,  city  office  expense,  miscellaneous 

Total 


Cost  per  1000 
feet. 


$0.5 


$5-45 


G.    MOUNTAIN   LOGGING   IN   WEST   VIRGINIA  ' 

Period  of  Logging.  —  The  year  round. 

Labor.  —  The  foremen  are  usually  Americans,  and  the  remaining 
laborers  are  chiefly  foreigners,  such  as  Italians,  Austrians,  Poles 
and  Hungarians  with  a  small  percentage  of  other  nationalities. 

Camps.  —  The  camps  are  chiefly  board  structures  built  along 
the  logging  railroad.  They  accommodate  from  fifty  to  seventy- 
five  men  and  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  horses.  Board  and 
lodging  are  provided  by  the  operator.  Families  seldom  reside 
in  camp. 

^  See  Cost  of  Mountain  Logging  in  West  Virginia,  by  Henry  H.  Farquhar. 
Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  255-269. 


LOGGING  METHODS  435 

Topography  and  Bottom.  —  The  region  in  which  extensive 
operations  are  now  conducted  is  rugged  with  narrow  valleys 
and  steep  slopes,  covered  in  many  places  with  massive  boulders 
that  are  a  hinderance  to  logging.  Mountain  laurel  is  abundant 
throughout  the  forest  and  necessitates  heavy  swamping. 

Felling  and  Log-making.  —  On  operations  where  hemlock  bark 
and  logs  are  utilized  the  bark  peelers  fell,  bark  and  cut  the 
boles  into  logs  during  the  months  of  May  to  August,  inclusive. 
During  the  remainder  of  the  year  the  felling  crews,  consisting 
of  a  chopper  and  two  sawyers,  go  through  the  forest  felling  and 
cutting  into  logs  the  remaining  spruce  and  hemlock  trees.  The 
hardwoods  are  cut  after  the  softwoods  to  avoid  the  loss  through 
breakage  that  would  occur  if  all  of  the  timber  were  felled  at  one 
time.  Trees  are  cut  to  a  stump  diameter  of  lo  inches  and  the 
boles  to  a  top  diameter  of  8  inches  for  saw  logs,  and  4  inches 
for  pulpwood.  A  crew  of  two  men  will  fell  and  make  into  logs 
from  15,000  to  20,000  feet  of  spruce  and  hemlock,  daily.  Two 
knot  cutters  are  often  members  of  the  felling  crew.  Their  duty 
is  to  snipe  the  ends  of  the  logs  and  to  remove  the  hmbs  from 
them. 

Skidding.  —  Skidding  is  done  largely  with  animals.  Roads 
or  trails  are  cut  from  the  valleys  up  to  the  tops  of  the  ridges  and 
the  logs  are  dragged  down  in  tows  either  over  skipper  roads  or 
pole  slides.  A  team  on  a  skipper  road  will  handle  from  5000  to 
6000  feet  daily  on  a  haul  of  j-mile.  Slides  (p.  230)  are  common 
in  some  sections  and  are  built  from  a  few  hundred  feet  to  a  mile 
or  more  in  length. 

The  cableway  system  of  power  logging  is  in  occasional  use, 
and  on  some  operations  single-line  snaking  machines  are  em- 
ployed for  dragging  logs  for  distances  as  great  as  2500  feet. 

Transportation.  —  On  many  operations  the  logs  are  hauled  to 
the  mill  on  narrow-  or  standard-gauge  railroads.  The  narrow- 
gauge  roads  are  frequently  of  the  stringer  type.  The  railroad  is 
usually  built  up  the  main  "draws"  or  valleys.  Spurs  are  sel- 
dom constructed  because  of  the  heavy  expense. 

Inclines  are  common  and  occasionally  aerial  trams  are  em- 
ployed. 


436 


LOGGING 


Logs  are  loaded  both  by  hand  and  with  power  loaders  of  sev- 
eral types. 

Water  transport  is  used  in  regions  where  suitable  streams 
are  available.  The  logs  are  hauled  to  the  stream  and  placed  in 
the  channel  awaiting  a  freshet  to  carry  them  down  stream. 

Cost  of  Logging.  —  The  cost  of  contract  logging  on  an  opera- 
tion in  the  mountainous  parts  of  West  Virginia  with  a  twenty- 
mile  railroad  haul  is  as  follows: 


Felling 

Road-making  and  swamping 

Skidding 

Loading 

Office  expense 

General  expense 

Railroad  construction 

Total 


Cost  per  1000 
board  feet. 


$O.Q5 

87 

I 

76 

35 

08 

24 

86 

$5-11 


The  total  cost  of  lumber  f.o.b.  car  at  the  mill  for  the  year 
igo9  was  as  follows: 


Logging,  including  stumpage 

Milling 

Log  train  service 

Office  expense 

General  expense,  taxes,  legal  fees,  etc. 

Total 


Cost  per  1000 
feet. 


$8.46 

1.64 

1.67 

•15 

•03 


$11.95 


H.    ALASKA^ 

Period  of  Logging.  —  Chiefly  during  the  warmer  months. 

Logging  Methods.  —  Until  recently  hand  logging  has  been  the 
common  method  along  the  shores,  but  this  is  now  being  replaced 
by  the  slack-rope  system  of  power  logging.     The  donkeys  are 

1  Hoffman,  Bruce  E.:  Sitka  Spruce  of  Alaska.  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of 
American  Foresters,  Vol.  VII,  No.  2,  pp.  226-238. 


LOGGING   METHODS 


437 


mounted  on  scows  which  are  towed  to  the  point  where  logging 
is  to  be  carried  on.  Loggers  seldom  operate  more  than  900  feet 
from  shore,  although  in  one  case  a  road  engine  and  a  donkey 
were  employed  and  the  logs  brought  from  a  maximum  distance 
of  2500  feet.  Timber  is  becoming  scarce  that  can  be  reached 
by  present  methods  and  improved  machinery  will  soon  be 
required. 

Cost  of  Operation.  —  The  average  cost  of  operating  with 
power  logging  on  the  Tongass  National  Forest  is  about  as 
follows : 


Felling 

Lopping  tops 

Yarding  to  booming  place 

Booming 

Towing 

Boom  cost  (bucking  and  placing  on  mill  deck) 

Sawing 

Edging 

Trimming 

Yard  cost 

Planer,  cost  on  finished  material 

Loading  and  selling 

Fuel  and  oil 

Upkeep 

Manufacturing  license 

Stumpage 

Total  cost 


Cost  per  1000  board 
feet. 


$0.75 


25   $3.02! 


.875 
■375 
•75 
.00 


I  50 
1. 00 

■50 

•50 

.  10 

1. 00 


$1: 


1  Logs  are  usually  sold  in  the  market  at  about  $5  per  thousand  feet,  hence  on  most  operations 
the  cost  of  logs  to  the  millman  is  $1.98  additional. 

The  average  percentage  of  each  grade  sawed  from  Sitka  spruce 
is  as  follows: 


Per  cent. 

Clear                              

15 

20 
15 
20 
20 
5 

No    I  common               

No    2  common               

Box                             

Dimension                     

Cull..                           

438  LOGGING 

The  average  retail  prices  are  as  follows: 


Value  per  looo 
board  feet. 

Rough  lumber,  mill  run 

^-sized   mill  run                        .  . 

$15.00 
16.00 

17-50 
20.00 
30.00 

Ship-lap   mill  run 

Select  (finish) 

PART  VI 
MINOR  INDUSTRIES 


CHAPTER  XXV 

TURPENTINE   ORCHARDING 

The  production  of  rtaval  stores  was  an  important  industry 
in  some  of  the  South  Atlantic  States,  especially  in  the  Carolinas 
where  the  industry  flourished  for  many  years,  but  it  has  been 
on  the  decHne  since  1880,  the  year  of  maximum  production. 

Florida  is  now  the  center  of  the  industry,  producing  more 
than  one-half  of  all  the  turpentine  and  rosin  output  of  this 
country.  Other  States  in  which  large  quantities  are  produced 
are  Texas,  Louisiana,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Georgia  and  South 
CaroHna. 

The  production  in  191 1  was  638,000  casks  of  turpentine  and 
3,916,000  barrels^  of  rosin.-  The  greater  part  of  these  products 
find  their  market  in  Europe. 

Species  Worked.  —  All  coniferous  trees  contain  resinous 
materials  in  their  wood,  but  resin  ducts  are  best  developed  in  the 
hard  pines  of  the  South  which  furnish  the  raw  material  from  which 
naval  stores  are  secured. 

The  product  obtained  by  ''bleeding"  a  pine  tree  is  known  as 
gum,  crude  turpentine  or  resin.  From  this,  turpentine,  rosin 
and  pitch  are  secured  by  distillation.  Pitch  pine  {Pinus  rigida) 
yields  limited  quantities  of  crude  turpentine.  It  was  worked 
successfully  in  the  East  during  the  Revolutionary  war  but  the 
industry  has  ceased  to  exist  because  of  the  scarcity  of  timber 
and  the  limited  yield  per  tree. 

Shortleaf  pine  {P.  echinata)  does  not  yield  resin  readily  and 
the  face  of  the  tree  dries  rapidly.  Although  the  yield  per  tree 
is  limited,  the  so-called  "Rosemary"  pine,  a  form  of  shortleaf, 
is  bled  when  found  in  the  vicinity  of  other  species  that  are  being 
worked. 

^  280  pounds  each. 

^  Naval  Stores  Review,  Savannah,  Georgia,  June  27,  1912,  p.  40. 
441 


442  LOGGING 

Loblolly  pine  (P.  tada)  contains  a  large  amount  of  resinous 
material  in  its  sapwood  similar  in  composition  to  that  found  in 
longleaf.  The  crude  turpentine  from  this  species  is  more  fluid 
in  character,  dries  faster  on  the  face  of  the  cut,  and  the  yield  per 
tree  is  limited  so  that  this  species  is  not  regarded  with  favor  in 
longleaf  regions.  However,  it  has  been  and  still  is  extensively 
worked  in  the  Carolinas. 

Cuban  pine  (P.  hetero phylla)  which  occurs  largely  in  the  State 
of  Florida  is  worked  with  the  longleaf.  It  bleeds  for  a  longer 
period  than  other  species  and  produces  only  a  small  amount  of 
scrape. 

Longleaf  pine  {P.  palustris)  is  the  tree  most  productive  of  crude 
turpentine  and  furnishes  the  raw  material  from  which  the  bulk 
of  the  world  supply  of  turpentine  and  rosin  are  produced. 

Attitude  of  Lumbermen  toward  Turpentine  Orcharding. — All 
owners  of  stumpage  are  not  agreed  as  to  whether  it  is  profitable 
to  bleed  pine  timber  for  naval  stores  because  of  the  increased  fire 
risk,  liability  to  wind  damage  especially  on  boxed  timber,  the 
depreciated  value  of  the  butt  log  which  is  the  best  portion  of 
the  tree,^  the  increased  weight  of  bled  timber  which  averages 
about  200  pounds  per  thousand  feet  heavier  than  unbled  timber 
and  the  loss  of  killed  timber  which  ranges  from  i  per  cent  on 
cupped  trees  to  5  per  cent  on  boxed  timber. 

Stumpage  from  bled  timber  is  held  at  from  50  to  65  per 
cent  less  than  that  of  unbled.  Where  timber  is  now  bled, 
logging  follows  soon  after  the  cessation  of  orcharding.  Turpen- 
tining is  not  as  prevalent  among  operators  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Mississippi  River  as  on  the  east  side,  although  the  practice 
appears  to  be  growing  as  the  methods  of  orcharding  are 
improved. 

Large  stumpage  owners  and  lumber  operators  as  a  rule  prefer 
to  run  their  own  turpentine  operations  rather  than  to  lease  the 
rights  to  others.  Where  leases  are  made,  safeguards  are  pro- 
vided in  the  contract  which  strictly  define  the  rights  and 
responsibilities  of  the  lessee.     The  lease  may  be  made  on  the 

1  Some  operators  claim  that  the  loss  in  quality  and  quantity  is  fully  20  per 
cent. 


TURPENTINE   ORCHARDING  443 

basis  of  the  crop  or  the  acre,  and  usually  runs  for  a  three-  or 
four-year  period. 

The  average  lease  price  per  acre  is  from  $2.50  to  $4.50  for  a 
four-year  period,  while  the  rental  per  crop  for  the  same  time 
ranges  from  S700  to  $1000.  A  stipulation  is  frequently  placed 
in  the  contract  requiring  the  turpentine  operator  to  pay  for  all 
timber  killed  during  his  lease.  The  price  for  this  is  based  on 
the  stumpage  value  of  the  timber  and  is  estimated  annually  at 
the  close  of  the  season. 

METHODS    OF    OPERATION 

For  many  years  crude  turpentine  was  harvested  in  a  primitive 
and  wasteful  manner  by  means  of  the  box  method,  but  within 
the  last  ten  years  the  box  is  rapidly  being  replaced  by  cups  or 
other  receptacles  which  are  less  injurious  to  the  tree,  and  which 
yield  a  higher  percentage  of  turpentine  and  a  better  grade  of 
rosin. 

A.    THE   WORKING   UNIT 

A  pine  forest,  called  a  turpentine  orchard,  is  divided  up  into 
working  units,  called  crops.  These  are  composed  of  10,500 
boxes  or  cups  which  cover  an  area  of  from  200  to  250  acres  in 
the  virgin  longleaf  forests,  and  an  area  of  from  500  to  1600  acres 
in  the  Carolina  fields  which  are  largely  exhausted.  Crops  are 
further  divided  into  five  "drifts,"  comprising  2100  boxes  each. 
On  large  operations  from  ten  to  fifteen  crops  are  in  charge  of  a 
woodsman  or  woodsrider  who  is  responsible  to  a  superintendent 
in  charge  of  the  entire  operation.  The  boundaries  of  crops  and 
drifts  are  usually  marked  by  blazes  to  guide  the  laborers. 

The  development  of  a  new  crop  begins  early  in  the  fall,  by 
firing  the  forest  and  burning  off  the  grass,  fallen  needles  and  other 
refuse  on  the  forest  floor,  which  would  prove  a  menace  to  the 
timber  after  the  trees  have  been  prepared  for  bleeding. 

Following  the  burning  of  the  litter  comes  the  preparation  of 
the  receptacle  for  catching  the  gum  as  it  comes  from  the  tree. 
This  is  done  during  the  period  between  October  and  March, 
when  labor  is  abundant  and  is  not  required  on  other  parts  of  the 
operation. 


444  LOGGING 

B.    THE    SIZE    OF  TREE   AND    THE    NUMBER    OF   RECEPTACLES 

Trees  as  small  as  6  inches  in  diameter  are  often  bled,  although 
it  is  seldom  profitable  to  work  trees  under  12  inches. 

The  number  of  boxes  or  cups  placed  on  a  tree  is  governed 
chiefly  by  its  size;  small  trees  having  one  receptacle,  medium- 
sized  trees,  from  18  to  24  inches  in  diameter,  two,  and  those  of 
greater  diameter  from  two  to  four.  During  the  last  year  the 
crop  is  worked  some  operators  "back  box"  the  timber,  that  is, 
they  place  additional  cups  on  the  trees. 

It  is  essential  that  a  strip  of  cambium  from  3  to  6  inches  wide 
be  left  between  each  scar  in  order  that  the  tree  will  not  be 
girdled,  and  die  during  the  first  season. 

When  the  turpentine  rights  only  are  leased,  the  timber  often 
is  bled  more  heavily  than  where  the  work  is  done  by  the  owner 
of  the  timber, 

C.     THE    BOX    SYSTEM 

Cutting  the  Boxes.  —  The  box  consists  of  a  wedge-shaped 
incision  cut  into  the  base  of  the  tree  at  a  height  of  from  8  to  1 2 
inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  size  of  the  box  depends  on  the  diameter  of  the  tree,  but 
usually  the  opening  is  from  6  to  7  inches  in  height,  from  9  to  14 
inches  wide  and  the  base  slopes  downward  at  an  angle  of  35 
degrees  for  a  distance  of  7  inches.  The  capacity  of  these  boxes 
varies  from  i  to  3  quarts. 

Boxing  is  done  with  a  long-bitted,  straight-handled  ax  of 
special  pattern.  The  negro  laborers  who  work  by  contract  are 
paid  from  i^  to  2  cents  per  box.  On  large  operations  the  men 
work  in  crews  of  from  forty  to  fifty  in  charge  of  a  foreman,  who 
inspects  and  tallies  the  boxes  cut  by  each  man.  A  water  boy  is 
a  necessary  member  of  the  crew  and  is  usually  paid  by  the 
laborers,  each  one  of  whom  contributes  two  boxes  per  day  toward 
the  payment  of  his  wage. 

A  good  box  cutter  will  average  from  80  to  150  boxes  per  day. 
Some  are  able  to  cut  200  per  day,  but  not  all  of  the  boxes  will 
be  well  made. 


TURPENTINE   ORCHARDING 


445 


Cornering.  —  Boxing  is  followed  by  cornering,  performed  by 
two  workers,  one  right-handed,  the  other  left-handed.  An 
ordinary  ax  is  used  for  this  purpose.  From  the  peak  of  the  box 
a  slanting  cut  one  inch  deep  is  made  upward  until  its  outer  edge 
is  directly  above  the  outer  edge  of  the  box.  A  side  blow  then 
splits  out  the  wood  between  the  cut  and  the  outer  edge  of  the  tree. 
The  object  of  cornering  is  to  provide  a  suitable  face  for  the  com- 
mencement of  the  subsequent  scarification  of  the  tree. 

Two  men  can  cut  2000  faces  per  day.  The  contract  price 
ranges  between  $1.25  and  $1.50  per  thousand  faces. 


Fig.  1 29.  —  A  Turpentine  Box  for  the  collection  of  Crude  Turpentine. 


Chipping.  —  In  tapping  a  tree  very  little  resin  is  actually 
secured  from  the  resin  ducts  already  in  the  wood.  The  main 
flow  is  from  secondary  ducts  which  arise  as  a  consequence  of 
the  injury  due  to  chipping.^  Resin  begins  to  flow  about  February 
15  or  March  i  and  chipping  or  scarification  then  begins.  This 
consists  in  laying  bare  the  surface  of  the  sapwood  directly  above 

1  See  The  Origin  and  Development  of  Resin  Canals  in  the  Cpniferae  with 
Special  Reference  to  the  Development  of  Tyloses  and  their  co-relation  with  the 
Thylosal  Strands  of  the  Pteridophytes,  by  Simon  Kirsch.  Proc.  Royal  Society 
of  Canada,  191 1.  Also  Relation  of  Light  Chipping  to  the  Commercial  Yield  of 
Naval  Stores,  by  Charles  H.  Herty.  Bulletin  No.  90,  U.  S.  Forest  Service, 
Washington,  1911. 


446  LOGGING 

the  box,  the  incision  being  made  about  f-inch  deep  and  from 
I  to  2  inches  wide.  The  tool  used  for  this  purpose  is  called  a 
hack  and  consists  of  a  blade  of  high-grade  steel  about  3  inches 
wide  bent  into  a  U-shape.  The  cutting  blade  is  fastened  by  a 
shank  and  band  to  a  2-inch  handle,  from  18  to  24  inches  long, 
on  the  end  of  which  is  attached  a  6-pound  iron  weight  to  give 
force  to  the  stroke.  A  patent  hack  recently  placed  on  the 
market  can  be  adjusted  to  cut  any  thickness  of  chip  desired, 
and  in  addition  makes  a  square  cut  instead  of  a  concave  one. 

The  chipper  or  renter,  as  he  is  called,  stands  squarely  in  front 
of  the  box  and  by  a  right-hand  and  left-hand  stroke  removes 
the  chip  from  the  face  of  the  tree.  The  freshly  cut  surfaces, 
called  streaks,  meet  just  above  the  center  of  the  box,  forming  the 
peak,  and  extend  upward  at  an  angle  of  about  40  degrees  to  a 
line  perpendicular  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  box.  The  cut  must 
not  penetrate  the  heartwood,  or  else  the  face  becomes  "dry" 
and  resin  ceases  to  run.  The  flow  from  the  fresh  incisions  runs 
over  the  scarified  face  into  the  box  below.  It  is  most  vigorous 
on  the  first  day  after  chipping  and  gradually  diminishes  until 
the  seventh  day,  when  it  practically  ceases.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  "chip"  the  trees  weekly,  approximately  thirty-two 
streaks  being  made  during  the  first  season.  Each  successive 
streak  increases  the  distance  to  the  box,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  first  season  the  scarified  face  has  extended  from  18  to  20 
inches  up  the  tree;  the  second  year  the  distance  is  from  36  to 
42  inches;  the  third  year  from  60  to  65  inches;  and  the  fourth 
year  from  80  to  85  inches. 

Recent  experiments  have  shown  that  a  thin  streak  produces 
as  good  results  as  a  thick  one,  and  has  the  additional  advantage 
that  the  tree  is  easier  to  chip,  since  the  streaks  do  not  advance 
up  the  tree  to  so  great  a  height. 

The  practice  of  running  the  chipped  faces  spirally  up  the  tree 
has  been  advocated  in  order  to  extend  the  length  of  time  that 
a  tree  could  be  worked  readily.  Such  a  plan  is  not  impracticable 
since  the  movement  of  sap  is  from  one  cell  to  another,  through 
pits  in  the  side  walls  and  not  straight  up  and  down  the  tree. 
This  practice  however,  is  not  general. 


TURPENTINE   ORCHARDING  447 

It  is  seldom  profitable  to  operate  trees  for  a  period  greater  than 
four  years  because  of  the  reduced  yield  and  the  inferior  grade 
of  the  product. 

Turpentine  operators  distinguish  the  different  aged  faces  as 
follows : 

First  year "Virgin " 

Second  year "Yearlings" 

Third  year "3-year-oId" 

Fourth  year "Bucks"  or  "pulling  boxes  " 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  third  year  and  the  fourth  year  the 
height  of  the  streak  above  ground  becomes  too  great  for  the 
chipper  to  use  the  short-handled  ''hack"  and  a  tool  called  the 
puller  is  substituted.  This  consists  of  a  steel  blade,  similar  to 
that  on  the  hack,  mounted  on  the  end  of  a  pole  about  5  feet  long. 
This  tool  is  used  in  the  same  manner  as  a  hack. 

One  man  can  chip  from  2000  to  2400  boxes  daily,  and  during 
a  week  will  attend  one  crop.  The  laborer  is  paid  from  75  to  80 
cents  per  thousand  boxes. 

Dipping.  —  Resin  is  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  box  for 
about  four  weeks  when  the  "dip,"  as  it  is  called,  is  collected. 
This  is  done  eight  or  nine  times  during  the  first  year  and 
gradually  diminishes  during  the  following  seasons  until  the 
fourth  year  when  three  or  four  dips  only  are  made.  Empty 
barrels  are  distributed  by  wagon  at  suitable  intervals  throughout 
the  crop  and  a  laborer  with  a  large  8-  or  lo-gallon  wooden  bucket 
dips  the  crude  turpentine  from  the  boxes,  using  a  flat,  oval  dipper 
attached  to  a  handle  about  3I  feet  long. 

The  flow  is  most  abundant  during  the  months  of  July  and 
August,  and  gradually  diminishes  as  the  season  advances.  In 
virgin  boxes  it  ceases  during  the  latter  part  of  October.  Each 
year  the  season  becomes  shorter.  Dipping  of  "yearhngs"  closes 
usuafly  during  September,  and  3-year-old  and  bucks  during  the 
latter  part  of  August,  or  the  first  days  of  September. 

The  average  dip  per  crop  during  a  season  is  as  follows: 

Virgin  crop 250  to  300  barrels  ^ 

Yearling  crop 185  barrels 

3-year-old  crop 125  barrels 

Buck  crop 125  barrels 

1  Capacity,  51  gallons. 


448  LOGGING 

One  man  can  dip  from  three  to  four  barrels  per  day,  and  can 
tend  from  6000  to  10,000  boxes.  He  is  paid  from  50  to  65  cents 
per  barrel. 

After  a  crop  has  been  dipped,  the  barrels  are  hauled  to  the  still 
on  a  wagon  drawn  by  two  mules.  A  pair  of  skids  are  attached 
to  the  rear  end  of  the  wagon  and  allowed  to  drag  as  it  proceeds 
through  the  orchard.  Barrels  usually  have  a  patent  rim,  so  that 
a  tight  head  may  be  readily  placed  in  them  in  order  that  the 
barrels  may  be  turned  on  edge  and  rolled  up  the  skids.  A  wagon 
will  haul  six  or  eight  barrels  at  one  time. 

Scraping.  —  The  crude  turpentine  flowing  over  the  face  of  the 
wound,  especially  during  the  third  and  fourth  years,  when  the 
distance  is  greatest,  thickens  and  loses  some  of  its  volatile  oil, 
both  by  evaporation  and  oxidation  and  forms  over  the  surface 
a  thick  coating  known  as  scrape.  This  is  collected  after  the 
last  dip  of  the  season  has  been  made.  A  ''scraper"  attached 
to  a  long  handle  is  used  to  free  the  scrape  from  the  scarified 
face. 

The  average  amount  of  scrape  secured  each  season  is  as 
follows: 

Virgin  crop 50  to    70  barrels  ^ 

Yearling  crop 100  to  1 20  barrels 

3-year-old  crop 100  to  140  barrels 

Buck  crop 100  to  140  barrels 

Scrape  gatherers  receive  from  10  to  15  cents  per  100  pounds 
for  collecting  scrape,  or  40  cents  for  325  pounds  net  (one  barrel). 
One  man  can  collect  from  1200  to  1500  pounds  daily.  Scrape  is 
collected  in  barrels  in  the  same  manner  as  dip. 

Raking.  —  Following  the  collection  of  scrape,  steps  are  taken 
to  protect  boxed  timber  against  fire.  Men,  women  and  boys 
with  heavy  hoes  remove  all  grass,  pine  needles  and  other  debris 
from  the  base  of  the  tree,  making  a  clear  circular  space  with  a 
radius  of  2  or  3  feet.  The  average  day's  work  is  from  400  to  700 
trees.  The  contract  price  ranges  from  20  to  35  cents  per  100 
trees,  or  from  $12  to  $15  per  crop. 

1  Capacity,  51  gallons. 


TURPENTINE  ORCHARDING  449 


D.     CUP    SYSTEMS 


The  wastefulness  of  the  box  system  early  led  to  a  search  for 
a  better  method.  The  first  effort  in  this  country  to  devise  a  new 
receptacle  was  made  in  1869  by  a  South  Carolina  operator,  whose 
invention,  however,  did  not  prove  successful.  A  Louisiana 
operator  put  out  a  cup  in  1895,  but  it  proved  too  expensive  to 
place  on  the  trees,  and  was,  therefore,  abandoned.  During  the 
last  fifteen  years  numerous  other  devices  have  been  brought  out 
but  only  a  few  of  them  have  proved  of  value. 

herty's  cup  and  gutter 

About  ten  years  ago  a  "  cup-and-gutter  "  system  was  patented^ 
and  has  since  proven  so  practical  that  it  has  been  widely  adopted. 
An  earthen  or  galvanized  iron  pot'-  or  cup  into  which  the  resin  is 
conveyed  by  means  of  galvanized  iron  gutters"  is  hung  on  the 
face  of  the  tree.  The  cup  and  gutters  are  advanced  up  the  tree 
at  the  beginning  of  each  season,  so  that  the  distance  between  the 
streak  and  cup  is  always  short.  This  lessens  the  evaporation 
of  volatile  oils  and  reduces  the  amount  of  scrape.  The  gum 
also  does  not  absorb  as  much  coloring  matter  in  passing  over 
the  scarified  face,  and,  therefore,  produces  a  higher  grade  of 
rosin. 

Hanging  the  Cups.  —  The  work  of  hanging  cups  begins  early 
in  the  season,  usually  in  February  or  early  March.  The  organi- 
zation of  the  crew  is  different  from  that  used  in  cutting  boxes 
because  of  the  variety  of  work  to  be  performed.  On  some 
operations  a  laborer  armed  with  a  hack  precedes  the  crew  and 
cuts  two  diagonal  streaks  on  the  tree,  which  meet  at  a  point 
directly  over  the  center  of  the  face.  Face  cutters  then  follow 
and,,  with  an  8-  or  9-pound  broadax,  cut  two  opposite  flat  faces 
10  or  12  inches  high  and  from  6  to  10  inches  wide  that  meet  at 

1  Dr.  Charles  H.  Herty,  patentee. 

^  The  day  pots  are  7  inches  high;  top  diameter  5I  inches;  bottom  diameter 
3  inches;  capacity  from  i  to  15  quarts.  The  gah^anized  iron  pots  are  of  appro.xi- 
mately  the  same  capacity. 

'  The  gutters  are  made  of  strips  2  inches  wide,  bent  lengthwise  along  the  center 
at  an  angle  of  120  degrees. 


45° 


LOGGING 


an  angle  directly  under  the  apex  of  the  streak.  On  some  opera- 
tions the  faces  are  cut  sometime  in  advance  of  the  streak.  This 
practice  is  partly  responsible  for  the  criticism  that  has  been 
made  of  the  cup-and-gutter  system  since  it  requires  from  two  to 
three  more  chippings  to  produce  the  first  dip  of  the  season  than 
for  the  box  system.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  upper 
portion  of  the  two  fiat  faces  have  oval  outlines,  and  the  resin 
ducts  are  formed  along  the  upper  edges  of  the  faces.  The  first 
chipping  is  made  from  each  side  to  the  center,  and  only  those 
ducts  along  the  center  of  the  face  are  opened.     On  the  other 


Fig.  130.  —  A  Workman  cutting  Incisions  on  the  Face  of  the  Tree,  into  whicla 
Gutters  are  to  be  inserted.     Herty's  system. 


hand,  when  boxes  are  used  "cornering"  makes  a  straight  face, 
and  all  ducts  along  the  line  of  the  cut  are  opened  up  by  the  first 
streak. 

The  faces  provide  a  flat  surface  for  the  gutters  and  for  hanging 
the  cups.  Their  cost  is  less  than  box  corners  because  they  are 
not  cut  so  deep.  A  12-inch  broadax  is  then  used  to  cut  in- 
cisions for  the  insertion  of  the  gutters  which  slant  at  an  angle 
of  about  40  degrees.  One  incision  is  made  on  each  face,  the 
upper  one  being  about  3  inches  below  the  chipping  face  and 
the  lower  one  on  the  opposite  side  about  i  inch  lower. 


TURPENTINE  ORCHARDING 


451 


A  galvanized  gutter  is  then  inserted  into  each  incision,  the 
lower  gutter  projecting  about  i^  inches  past  the  upper  one  so 
that  it  forms  a  spout  to  carry  off  the  resin  from  both  gutters.  A 
6-penny  zinc  nail  is  then  driven  on  the  face  opposite  the  lower 
gutter  and  in  such  position  that  the  gum  will  drain  into  a  cup 
hung  on  it.  Wire  nails  were  for- 
merly used  for  hanging  cups  but 
they  were  difficult  to  pull  from  a 
pitchy  face  and  laborers  often 
left  them  in  the  tree,  which 
damaged  the  saws  at  the  mill 
when  the  timber  was  sawed  in- 
to lumber.  Zinc  nails  are  soft 
enough  to  be  cut  by  a  band  saw 
without  injury. 

Cups  are  hung  by  crews  fol- 
lowing the  gutter  placers.  At 
the  end  of  the  season  cups  are 
removed  from  the  nails  and 
turned  upside  down  by  the  tree, 
since  they  break  if  water  accu- 
mulates and  freezes  in  them. 

The  placement  of  cups  and 
gutters  is  done  largely  by  day 
labor.  On  an  Alabama  operation  the  crew  for  placing  Herty 
cups  and  gutters  was  composed  of  eighteen  men  whose  duties 
were  as  follows: 


Fig.  131.  —  A  Tree  equipped  with  a 
Herty  Cup  and  Gutters.  The  first 
streaks  will  be  cut  at  the  upper  edge 
of  each  face. 


2  men  cutting  streaks 
4  men  cutting  faces 
2  men  cutting  incisions  for 
gutters 


I  man  distributing  gutters 
6  men  placing  gutters 

1  man  distributing  cups 

2  men  driving  nails  and  hanging  cups 


This  crew  averaged  about  2500  cups  per  day,  and  the  average 
cost  per  crop  for  labor  was  $100. 

The  second  and  following  seasons  only  ten  men  were  required 
to  hang  the  same  number  of  cups,  because  the  streak  and  face 
cutters  and  the  gutter  and  can  distributors  were  not  needed. 


452 


LOGGING 


The  cost  of  installing  a  crop  of  this  character  as  estimated  by 
the  inventor  ^  is  as  follows : 


Cups  (10,500  at  ij  cents) 

Gutter  stripping  (1,886  pounds  of  galvanized  iron,  29 

cut  in  2-lnch  widths) 

Nails  (6-penny  wire  nails)^ 

Freight  charges  (estimated)' 

Labor  at  tree 

Cutting  and  shaping  gutters 


131-25 


103 

27 

I 

05 

30 

00 

80 

00 

4 

00 

Total . 


$349-57 


The  cost  of  cutting  and  cornering  boxes  is  from  $250  to  $300. 

Chipping.  —  The  chipping  and  pulling  of  a  crop  of  cups  is 
performed  in  the  same  manner  as  for  boxes. 

Dipping.  —  The  dip  is  col- 
lected in  barrels,  but  the  form 
of  receptacle  on  the  tree  re- 
quires some  modification  of  the 
box  method  for  dipping.  The 
dipper  passes  from  tree  to  tree 
with  his  bucket,  lifts  the  cups 
from  the  nail  and  by  means  of 
a  trowel-shaped  paddle  scoops 
the  gum  out  of  the  cup,  which 
is  then  replaced  on  the  tree. 
When  a  tree  bleeds  freely  extra 
cups  are  kept  hanging  on  nails, 
and  when  the  chipper  passes 
on  his  rounds  he  replaces  full 
cups  with  empty  ones,  hanging 
the  former  on  nails  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  tree.  By 
this  means  no  resin  is  lost .  The 
same  price  per  barrel  is  paid  for 
dipping  both  cups  and  boxes. 


Fig.  132.  —  A  Herty  Cup  on  a  "Year- 
ling" Crop.  The  cup  was  raised  at 
the  beginning  of  the  second  season. 


1  A  New  Method  of  Turpentine  Orcharding,  by  Chas.  H.  Herty.     Bui.  40. 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Forestry,  p.  31. 

^  Zinc  nails  have  since  been  substituted. 

3  Shipping  weight  approximately  25,000  pounds. 


TURPENTINE   ORCHARDING 


453 


The  handling  of  the  crop  from  this  time  on  is  very  similar  to  a 
crop  of  boxes. 

Advantages  of  the  System.  — Not  only  is  the  yield  of  turpen- 
tine increased  by  the  use  of  cups,  but  the  grade  of  rosin  is  higher 
and  under  average  conditions  may  be  worth  annually  $150  more 
per  crop  than  that  secured  from  boxes.  The  danger  from  fire  is 
also  reduced,  because  the  scarified  faces  do  not  take  fire  as  readily 
as  the  resinous  matter  in  boxes. 

THE    MCKOY   CUP 

The  McKoy  cup  is  attached  to  the  tree  by  means  of  a  gal- 
vanized-iron  apron  instead  of  a  nail.     The  box  is  rectangular  in 


,/, 


Fig.  133.  —  The  McKoy  Cup,  used  for  the  collection  of  Crude  Turpentine. 

form,  and  of  the  following  dimensions:  length  12  inches,  width 
3 J  inches  and  depth  3^  inches.  The  capacity  is  approximately 
two  quarts.  They  are  made  from  one  piece  of  sheet  iron  folded 
together  into  the  form  of  a  box.  The  apron  has  one  concave 
edge  so  that  it  will  fit  the  bole  of  the  tree.  The  back  edge 
of  the  box  is  turned  forward  and  down  forming  a  flange  by 
which  it  is  attached  to  another  flange  on  the  outer  edge  of  the 
apron. 

The  tools  required  for  hanging  cups  consist  of  a  special  con- 
cave-edge broadax  and  a  wooden  maul.  Cups  and  aprons  are 
distributed  throughout  the  orchard  to  all  trees  that  are  to  be 


454  LOGGING 

bled.  Two  men  then  follow,  one  using  the  broadax  and  the 
other  a  maul.  A  face  about  8  inches  long  and  6  inches  wide 
is  cut  on  the  bole  just  deep  enough  to  expose  the  wood.  This 
removes  loose  bark  and  facilitates  the  hanging  of  the  cup.  A 
gash  is  then  cut  into  the  face  by  holding  the  broadax,  head 
down,  against  the  tree  at  a  sharp  angle  and  striking  it  two  or 
three  times  with  the  maul.  The  concave  face  of  the  apron  is 
inserted  and  gently  driven  in  this  incision,  the  wood  closing 
over  it  and  holding  the  apron  firmly  in  position.  The  cup  is 
then  hung  on  the  apron  and  the  crop  is  ready  to  turn  over  to 
the  chipper. 

It  is  claimed  that  two  experienced  men  can  place  about 
looo  cups  per  day,  and  the  same  number  of  inexperienced  hands 
500  per  day. 

THE    GILMER-McCALL   CUP 

This  cup  is  a  radical  departure  from  any  heretofore  placed  on 
the  market.  It  consists  of  a  circular  glass  bowl  7  inches  long 
and  3  inches  in  diameter,  to  the  top  of  which  is  screwed  a  gal- 
vanized cap. 

This  system  is  designed  to  do  away  with  the  scarification  of 
the  bole  of  the  tree,  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  the  evapora- 
tion of  volatile  oils  and  the  accumulation  of  dirt  common  in  the 
old-style  cups  and  boxes. 

Two  |-inch  holes  are  bored  by  a  power-  or  hand-driven  auger 
up  through  the  sap  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees.  These  holes 
start  from  a  common  point  on  the  tree  and  their  length  varies 
with  the  diameter  of  the  tree,  for  they  must  not  break  through 
the  sapwood  nor  enter  the  heartwood.  The  average  length  is 
about  5  inches.  A  circular  hole  is  then  reamed  in  the  bark 
around  the  two  openings  and  the  cap  of  the  cup  inserted  into 
it  and  fastened  to  the  tree  by  brads.  When  the  holes  become 
clogged  they  are  reamed  out.  This  system  has  not  proved  a 
success. 

The  lease  cost  of  the  cups  complete  f.o.b.  is  10  cents  per  cup 
the  first  year,  and  2  cents  per  cup  each  succeeding  year.  A 
power-driven  boring  machine  with  tools  complete  is  listed  at  $150. 


TURPENTINE   ORCHARDING  455 

DISTILLATION   OF   CRUDE   TURPENTINE 

The  process  of  distillation  requires  experience  and  care  on 
the  part  of  the  operator  to  secure  the  highest  yields  of  turpen- 
tine and  the  best  grades  of  rosin. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  a  large  copper  retort,  holding  from 
ten  to  thirty  barrels/  a  condensing  tank,  a  coil  and  a  straining 
trough.  The  bottom  of  the  retort  is  slightly  arched  in  the 
center  to  facilitate  the  withdrawal  of  the  rosin  through  a  large 
gate  valve.  A  detachable  neck  fits  over  a  narrow  mouth  on 
top  of  the  retort  and  conveys  the  volatile  matter  to  the  con- 
denser from  which  the  oil  and  water  are  carried  by  gravity  to 
a  barrel.  The  base  of  the  retort  is  about  5  feet  above  ground, 
which  allows  for  the  placement  of  a  grate  underneath  and  also 
permits  the  withdrawal  of  the  rosin  from  the  retort  by  gravity. 
The  retort  is  inclosed  on  all  sides  by  brick  and  has  a  stack  on 
one  side  to  carry  off  the  smoke  from  the  hre. 

The  strainers  through  which  the  hot  rosin  is  passed  are  three 
in  number,  and  are  30  inches  wide,  from  12  to  16  feet  long  and 
1 2  inches  deep  and  are  made  so  they  will  nest.  The  top  one  has 
a  |-inch  mesh  screen  to  catch  the  bark  and  other  coarse  refuse; 
the  second  a  |-inch  mesh ;  and  the  third  a  very  fine  copper  mesh 
over  which  a  layer  of  cotton  batten  is  placed.  The  latter  re- 
moves sediment  that  was  not  strained  out  previously. 

Retorts  are  often  of  25-barrel  capacity,  and  including  the 
copper  neck  weigh  about  1000  pounds.  They  cost  approxi- 
mately $750. 

The  following  are  the  usual  charges  for  a  retort  of  the  above 
size: 

Virgin  dip 12  barrels 

Yearling  dip 10  barrels 

3-year-old  dip 10  barrels 

Buck 8  barrels 

Scrape 8  barrels 

The  older  the  face  from  which  resin  is  secured  the  more  it 
boils  up  on  heating,  hence  the  retort  charges  for  old  dip  are  less 

1  A  standard  barrel  for  crude  turpentine  holds  280  pounds  —  about  one-half 
the  size  of  a  5  2-gallon  barrel. 


456  LOGGING 

than  for  virgin.  The  retort  is  filled  from  the  top.  After  remov- 
ing the  neck,  the  dip  is  poured  in  from  barrels  until  the  re- 
quired amount  is  secured.  The  fire  is  then  started  under  the 
retort  and  the  mass  slowly  heated.  If  the  dip  is  virgin  the  bark 
as  it  rises  to  the  surface  is  skimmed  off  in  order  to  improve  the 
grade  of  rosin,  for  bark  discolors  it.  Skimming  is  usually  dis- 
pensed with  for  dip  of  other  ages.  The  neck  is  now  placed  on 
the  retort  and  connected  with  the  condenser  and  then  securely 
fastened  to  the  retort  by  lugs.  All  joints  between  the  neck  and 
retort  are  sealed  with  wet  clay.  The  mass  is  then  gradually 
brought  to  the  boiling  point.  Turpentine  and  water  early  begin 
to  pass  over  into  the  condenser  and  then  by  gravity  run  to  a 
storage  barrel  on  the  ground  floor.  Turpentine  which  has  a 
lower  specific  gravity  than  water  readily  separates  from  it  and 
is  run  off  from  the  top  of  the  barrel  into  the  barrel  in  which  it  is 
shipped  to  market.  About  the  middle  of  the  process  a  small 
stream  of  warm  water  is  admitted  to  the  retort  from  the 
condensing  tank  and  it  is  allowed  to  run  until  the  process  is  com- 
pleted, which  is  indicated  by  a  pecuhar  noise  of  the  boiling  con- 
tents of  the  still,  and  also  by  the  diminished  quantity  of  oil  in  the 
distillate.  Great  care  must  be  taken  toward  the  end  of  the  proc- 
ess not  to  burn  the  rosin.  The  process  being  complete  the  fire 
is  put  out  and  the  rosin  is  drawn  off  at  the  gate  valve,  and  con- 
ducted by  a  trough  into  the  strainer  tubs. 

Scrape  is  handled  in  the  same  manner  as  dip,  with  the  excep- 
tion that  a  barrel  of  water  is  added  at  the  start  to  prevent  burn- 
ing. 

It  requires  from  three  to  four  hours  to  run  a  charge  of  crude 
turpentine.  Three  men  are  usually  employed  on  a  large  plant, 
namely,  a  still  tender,  a  helper  and  a  cooper,  who  manufactures 
rosin  barrels. 

Turpentine  is  put  up  in  51 -gallon  double-glued  oak  barrels 
and  as  soon  as  it  has  cooled  it  is  tightly  corked  and  held  ready 
for  market.  Rosin  barrels  are  crude  affairs  made  of  rough  pine 
boards,  and  are  put  together  at  the  still.  Cracks  are  chinked  up 
with  clay.     The  usual  capacity  is  from  500  to  560  pounds. 

As  soon  as  the  rosin  has  cooled  somewhat  in  the  straining  vat, 


TURPENTINE   ORCR^RDING 


457 


it  is  dipped  into  the  barrels  and  allowed  to  become  thoroughly 
hard,  which  takes  about  twenty-four  hours.  It  is  then  ready 
for  shipment. 

Rosin  is  separated  into  fourteen  grades,  the  basis  of  which  is 
color.  The  best  grade  "W.W.,"  known  as  "water  white,"  is 
very  transparent  and  clear,  while  the  lowest  grade  "A"  is  black 
in  color. 

The  annual  yield  per  crop  of  turpentine  and  rosin  varies  with 
the  number  of  years  the  trees  have  been  bled.  The  average 
yields  are  as  follows: 


Turpentine. 


Virgin  dip .  .  . 
Yearling  dip, 
3-year-old  dip 
Bucks 


Gallons. 
2000-2IOO 

2000 
IIOO 

800 


Barrels. 
260 


Higher  and  highest  grades 
I.  H.&G. 
F.  E.  D. 
C.  B.  A. 


The  above  figures  were  secured  at  a  plant  where  the  output  of 
boxes  and  cups  was  distilled  together. 

During  the  last  two  years  a  crop  is  worked  under  the  cup 
system,  the  yield  of  turpentine  and  rosin  is  somewhat  greater 
and  the  grade  of  rosin  higher  than  shown  in  the  above  table. 

The  usual  yield  from  five  barrels  of  dip  is  one  barrel  of  spirits 
of  turpentine  and  three  barrels  of  rosin;  and  from  ten  barrels 
of  "scrape,"  one  barrel  of  spirits  of  turpentine  and  three  and 
one-third  barrels  of  rosin. 

Cost  of  a  Distillation  Plant.  —  The  estimated  cost  of  establish- 
ing a  turpentine  orcharding  plant  and  of  working  the  crop  for 
four  years  is  approximately  $2700  where  twenty  or  more  crops 
are  managed  together.  The  cost  of  equipment  alone,  for  twenty 
crops  of  boxed  timber,  including  the  still,  houses,  sheds,  tools, 
wagons  and  mules  is  about  S6000. 


MARKETS 

Savannah  is  the  chief  market  for  naval  stores  but  Jackson- 
ville, Florida;  Charleston,  South  Carolina;  Wilmington,  North 
Carolina;  and  New  Orleans,  Louisiana  are  also  important 
centers. 


458  LOGGING 

The  products  are  chiefly  sold  on  commission.  The  market 
price  of  turpentine  and  rosin  fluctuates  greatly  due  to  market 
manipulation  and  to  unfavorable  weather  conditions  which 
influence  production. 

Turpentine  was  quoted  on  the  Savannah  market  on  February 
24,  1913  at  42I  cents  per  gallon.  The  highest  market  price  on 
record  was  $1.07  per  gallon  obtained  on  March  25,  191 1;  and 
the  lowest,  22  cents  per  gallon  obtained  on  September  4,  1896. 
The  best  grade  of  rosin  "W.W."  in  the  above  market  averaged 
from  $7.25  to  $7.80  per  barrel  during  the  month  of  January, 
1913,  while  "B"  grade  brought  from  $4.95  to  $5.60. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE  TO   CHAPTER  XXV 

Fernow,  Bemhard  Eduard :  Effect  of  Turpentine  Gathering  on  the  Timber  of 
Longleaf  Pine.     Cir.  9,  U.  S.  Division  of  Forestry,  Washington,  1893. 

Herty,  Charles  Holmes:  A  New  Method  of  Turpentine  Orcharding.  Bui.  40, 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Forestry,  Washington,  1903. 

:    Practical  Results  of  the  Cup  and  Gutter  System  of 

Turpentining.     Cir.  34,  U.  S.  Bur.  of  For.,  Washington. 

:    Relation  of  Light  Chipping  to  the  Commercial  Yield 


of  Naval  Stores.     Bui.  90,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  Washington,  1911. 

KiRSCH,  Simon:  The  Origin  and  Development  of  Resin  Canals  in  the  Coni- 
ferae  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Development  of  Tyloses  and  their  Co- 
relation  with  the  Thylosal  Strands  of  the  Pteridophytes.  Proc.  Royal  Soc.  of 
Canada,  191 1. 

MoHR,  Charles:  The  Naval  Store  Industry.  The  Timber  Pines  of  the  Southern 
United  States.  Bui.  No.  13  (revised  edition),  U.  S.  Division  of  Forestry, 
Washington,  1897,  pp.  67-73. 

:  The  Naval  Stores  Industry.  Report  upon  the  Investiga- 
tions of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1877-1898,  Washington,  1899, 
pp.  144-164. 

PiNCHOT,  Gifford:  A  New  Method  of  Turpentine  Orcharding.  Cir.  24,  U.  S. 
Bur.  of  For.,  Washington,  1903. 

SuDWORTH,  Geo.  B.:  Conservative  Turpentining.  Report  of  the  National 
Conservation  Commission.  Senate  Doc.  No.  676,  Washington,  1909,  pp. 
498-511. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 


HARVESTING   TANBARK 


The  barks  of  the  hemlock  and  of  several  species  of  oak  were 
for  years  the  main  source  of  the  tannin  supply  of  the  United 
States,  but  the  growing  scarcity  of  these  species  has  led  to  the 
introduction  of  various  substitutes,  among  them  quebracho  wood 
extract  from  South  America  and  chestnut  wood  extract.  The 
eastern  hemlock  {Tsuga  canadensis)  furnishes  the  only  coniferous 
tanbark  in  the  East.  The  western  hemlock  {T.  hetero phylla)  of 
the  Pacific  Coast,  which  is  now  used  only  to  a  Umited  extent, 
will  be  in  demand  in  the  future,  because  of  the  high  percentage 
of  tannin  it  contains.  The  chief  eastern  oak  whose  bark  is 
used  for  tanning  is  the  chestnut  oak  {Quercus  prinus).  In  the 
West  the  bark  of  the  tanbark  oak  {Q.  densiflora)  is  extensively 
harvested  for  this  purpose.  Various  black  and  white  oaks  are 
used  to  a  limited  extent. 

The  average  per  cents  of  tannin  contained  in  the  barks  of 
different  species  are  as  follows:^ 


Species. 

Per  cent. 

Eastern  hemlock 

13     T  I 

Western  hemlock 

15 

16 

6 

8 
5 
5 
4 

I 

46 
25 
59 
90 

99 
56 

Tanbark  oak 

Chestnut  oak 

Spanish  oak 

Black  oak      . 

White  oak 

Red  oak 

HEMLOCK 

The  peeling  of  bark  can  be  carried  on  only  during  the  growing 
season.     It  begins  from  the  first  to  the  middle  of  May  and  lasts 

'  Report  on  the  Forests  of  North  America  (exclusive  of  Mexico),  by  Charles  S. 
Sargent.     Vol.  IX,  Tenth  Census.     Washington,  D.  C,  1884,  p.  265. 

459 


460  LOGGING 

until  the  latter  part  of  July  or  the  first  of  August,  after  which 
time  the  bark  sticks  and  cannot  be  removed  profitably.  The 
best  months  are  June  and  July.  A  crew  is  commonly  composed 
of  four  men,  namely,  one  fitter,  one  spudder,  and  two  log  cutters. 
The  fitter  selects  the  trees  to  be  felled,  then  with  an  ax  cuts  a 
ring  through  the  bark  around  the  base  of  the  tree.  He  then 
cuts  another  ring  4  feet  above  the  first,  and  splits  the  bark 
down  one  side  of  the  tree  from  ring  to  ring.  The  spudder  then 
inserts  a  tool  known  as  a  spud  between  the  bark  and  wood  and 
peels  off  the  bark. 

The  tree  is  next  felled  by  the  log  cutters,  after  which  the 
fitter  girdles  the  bole  in  4-foot  sections  and  cuts  a  line  through 
the  bark  along  the  entire  length.  He  also  swamps  off"  the  limbs 
that  will  interfere  with  the  work  of  the  sawyers  or  spudder. 
The  latter  then  removes  the  bark  on  these  sections,  peeling  it 
in  as  large  pieces  as  is  possible,  to  reduce  future  handling,  and 
leans  it,  bark  side  out,  against  the  fallen  log  to  dry.  This  takes 
from  several  days  to  a  month,  depending  on  the  weather.  The 
log  cutters  now  cut  up  the  bole. 

On  some  operations  two  men  compose  a  crew,  and  do  both 
the  felling  and  bark  peeling.  The  timber  then  is  not  cut  into 
logs  until  later  in  the  season  when  the  regular  logging  operation 
begins. 

If  the  dry  bark  is  not  removed  from  the  forest  until  snow  falls, 
it  is  piled  in  ricks,  bark  side  up,  to  prevent  the  tannin  from 
leaching  out  during  rainy  weather.  Often,  as  soon  as  dry,  it 
is  hauled  on  wagons  or  crude  sleds  to  the  railroad.  Frequently 
it  is  transported  to  the  base  of  steep  mountain  slopes  in  triangu- 
lar or  rectangular  troughs,  made  in  portable  sections.  The 
workmen  start  near  the  base  of  the  slope,  sending  down  all  bark 
within  a  short  radius  of  the  chute.  As  the  work  progresses  up 
the  slope  new  sections  are  added  to  the  trough  until  the  upper 
edge  of  the  cutting  is  reached.  The  slide  is  then  removed  and 
the  process  repeated  on  a  new  route.  On  very  steep  pitches  the 
speed  of  the  bark  is  checked  by  a  board,  one  end  of  which  is 
hinged  to  a  support  above  the  slide  with  the  other  end  resting 
in  the  trough.     The  bark  in  passing  raises  the  board  and  the 


HARVESTING   TANBARK 


461 


friction  produced  checks  its  speed.  This  method  breaks  up  the 
bark  and  is  used  only  when  necessary. 

The  preferable  form  of  transport  where  the  ground  is  not  too 
steep  for  horses  is  to  load  the  bark  on  a  sled  or  dray  holding  two 
to  two  and  one-half  cords  and  drag  it  to  the  loading  dock  along 
the  railroad.  A  common  form  of  sled  consists  of  two  15-foot 
birch  poles  with  the  rear  ends  dragging  and  the  front  ends 
fastened  to  a  short  sled.  A  bunk  built  on  the  rear  of  the  runner 
carries  a  roller  used  in  tightening  the  binding  rope  on  the  load. 
Another  form  consists  of  a  sled  with  iron  wood  runners  12  feet 
long,  turned  up  at  both  ends,  so  that  the  sled  may  be  dragged  in 
either  direction.  The  sled  is  equipped  with  stakes  to  hold  the 
bark,  and  also  with  rollers  to  aid  in  tightening  the  binding 
ropes. 

Both  forms  of  sleds  are  pulled  either  with  one  or  two  horses. 
One  man  with  a  team  will  haul  daily  from  eight  to  ten  cords,  and 
with  one  horse,  from  five  to  six  cords. 

Output.  —  A  crew  of  two  men  will  fell  the  timber  and  peel  from 
three  to  four  cords  per  day.  This  does  not  include  making  the 
tree  into  logs.  Four  men  will  peel  from  five  to  eight  cords  daily 
and  cut  the  timber  into  logs.  A  crew  of  the  latter  size  can  peel 
about  250  cords  in  a  season. 


Peeling 

Hauling: 

I  teamster $2 .  00  per  day 

1  teamster,  board .60  per  day 

2  horses,  labor  at 2 . 00  per  day 

2  horses,  board  at i.oo  per  day 

$5 .  60  per  day 
for  9  cords. 
Loading  :2 

7  men  at  $1.70  per  day $11.90 

7  men,  board  at  S.60  per  day 4. 20 


Total. 


$16.10 

for  25  cords. 


Cost  per  cord.i 


$2.00 


.65 


13-27 


'  2240  pounds. 

2  Seven  men  loaded  4  cars  daily,  each  car  having  a  capacity  of  from  6  to  7  cords,  depending  on 
the  care  in  stowing  e.tercised  by  the  men. 


462 


LOGGING 


Bark  peeling  and  handling  is  frequently  done  by  contract,  the 
jobber  receiving  from  $3.50  to  $4.50  per  cord  on  the  car.  The 
contract  price  on  board  car  on  a  West  Virginia  operation,  1909, 
was  $4  per  cord.     The  contractor's  expense  is  given  on  page  461. 

The  yield  of  bark  varies  with  the  size  of  the  trees  and  the 
region  in  which  the  timber  grows  and  is  usually  calculated  on 
the  basis  of  the  amount  of  timber  cut.  Pennsylvania  operators 
expect  to  secure  one  cord  from  1500  to  2000  feet,  log  scale; 
New  York  operators,  one  cord  from  1700  to  2000  feet,  log  scale; 
Michigan  operators,  one  cord  from  2000  feet,  log  scale;  while 
in  Maine  and  West  Virginia  the  yield  is  one  cord  from  2000  to 
2500  feet,  log  scale. 

The  following  data  on  the  yield  and  thickness  of  bark  on  trees 
of  given  diameter,  and  the  weight  of  hemlock  bark  per  square 
foot,  were  secured  in  the  Adirondack  region  of  New  York : 
YIELD   OF  HEMLOCK  BARK> 


Diameter  of 
tree  at  stump. 

Yield  of  bark. 

Diameter  of 
tree  at  stump. 

Yield  of  bark. 

Inches. 

In  cords. 2 

Inches. 

In  cords. 

9 

0.020 

20 

0.163 

10 

0.026 

21 

0.189 

II 

0.036 

22 

0.210 

12 

0.045 

23 

0.  240 

13 

0.056 

24 

0.275 

14 

0.065 

25 

0.305 

15 

0.078 

26 

0.340 

16 

0.091 

27 

0.370 

17 

0.106 

28 

0.405 

18 

O.I2I 

29 

0.440 

10 

O.141 

30 

0.480 

»  From  the  Fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Forest  Preserve  Board,  1900.     Albany,  N.  Y.,  1901 
pp.  84-86. 

2  2240  pounds. 

THICKNESS   OF   BARK 


Diameter 

of  tree  outside 

bark. 

Thickness  of 
bark. 

Diameter 

of  tree  outside 

bark. 

Thickness  of 
bark. 

Inches. 
7 
8 

9 
10 
II 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

Inches. 

1 

Inches. 

17 
18 

19 

20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

Inches, 
if 

lA 
life 
13^ 

HARVESTING   TANBARK 


463 


WEIGHT  OF   HEMLOCK   BARK   PER   SQUARE   FOOT 


Thickness  of 

Weight  per 

Thickness  of 

Weight  per 

bark. 

square  foot. 

bark. 

square  foot. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

1 

1. 00 

2.8s 

A 

3 

10 

1.63 

3 

32 

1.90 

3 

54 

1 

2.15 

3 

72 

I 

2.40 

3 

92 

li 

2.62 

4 

12 

Bark  is  shipped  to  tanneries  and  stored  in  sheds  or  in  the 
open  in  well  constructed  piles  in  order  to  prevent  the  bark  from 
becoming  moist,  otherwise  it  becomes  moldy  and  the  tannin 
leaches  out.  As  tannin  is  more  readily  extracted  from  dry  bark 
than  from  green  it  is  usually  seasoned  for  a  year  or  more. 

CHESTNUT    OAK 

Peeling  operations  are  conducted  from  the  middle  of  April 
until  the  middle  of  June  or  the  first  of  July.  The  general  plan 
of  peeling  and  hauling  bark  is  the  same  as  for  hemlock.  Many 
small  operations  are  conducted  and  the  bark  sold  f.o.b.  car  by 
the  owner  to  tannery  agents.  The  ruling  price  in  Virginia  and 
West  Virginia  during  the  summer  of  191 1  was  $8.50  per  cord 
on  the  car. 

The  average  cost  per  cord  of  harvesting  chestnut  oak  bark 
in  the  Appalachians  is  as  follows :  ^ 

Cutting,  peeling,  and  curing,  per  cord $i .  25-1 .50 

Carrying  and  sledding,  per  cord .90-1 .45 

Sleds  and  sledding  roads,  per  cord .15-  .30 

Total $2.30-3.25 

Tanbark  from  the  headwaters  of  the  Potomac  river  in  West 
Virginia  in  191 1  was  delivered  at  Edinburg,  Virginia,  16  miles 
distant,  at  approximately  the  following  cost  per  cord: 

Stumpage $0.50  to  0.75 

Cutting,  peeling,  and  bringing  to  the  wagon  road 1.50 

Wagon  haul,  16  miles 4.00 

Loading  on  car 0.35 

Total 56. 60 

^From  Logging,  Lumbering,  or  Forest  Utilization,  by  C.  A.  Schenck. 


464 


LOGGING 


The  average  value  per  cord,  f.o.b.  car,  was  $8. 

The  approximate  yield  of  bark  is  one  cord  from  1500  feet,  log 
scale,  Doyle  rule.  The  yield  from  individual  trees  in  the  Appa- 
lachian region  is  as  follows: 

YIELD   OF   BARK   IN   RELATION  TO   DIAMETER  OF  TREE^ 


Diameter, 
breast  high. 

Yield  of  bark. 

Diameter, 
breast  high. 

Yield  of  bark. 

Inches. 

Cords. 

Inches. 

Cords.2 

10 

0.06 

21 

0.17 

II 

0.06 

22 

0.19 

12 

0.07 

23    . 

0.  20 

13 

0.08 

24 

0.  22 

14 

0.09 

25 

0.24 

15 

0.  10 

26 

0.  26 

16 

0.  II 

27 

0.28 

17 

0. 12 

28 

0.30 

18 

0.13 

29 

0.32 

19 

o.iS 

30 

0.34 

20 

0.16 

From  Chestnut  Oak  in  the  Appalachians.     Circular  135,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  p. 
2240  pounds. 


TANBARK    OAK 

The  tanbark  oak  is  a  native  of  southwestern  Oregon  and  of 
California,  where  the  harvesting  of  tanbark  has  been  an  im- 
portant industry  for  many  years.  The  peeling  season  begins 
about  May  20  and  lasts  until  the  middle  of  August,  although  it 
can  be  done  best  during  the  latter  part  of  the  season  for  the 
bark  is  then  tougher  and  does  not  break  readily. 

There  is  a  variation  in  the  length  of  the  peeling  season,  be- 
cause the  trees  are  very  sensitive  to  changes  in  temperature. 
Individual  trees  also  show  a  decided  difference  in  their  peeling 
qualities. 

Peelers  work  in  pairs  and  use  only  a  single-bitted  ax.  The 
tree  is  first  girdled  at  4  feet  above  ground,  again  at  the  ground, 
and  the  bark  then  slit  and  pried  off  with  an  ax.  The  tree  is 
then  felled  and  the  bark  ringed  and  peeled  off  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  in  hemlock.  The  work  is  continued  up  the  bole  until 
the  bark  becomes  less  than  |  inch  in  thickness.  The  "coils" 
of  bark  are  laid  on  the  ground,  bark  side  down,  and  allowed 


HARVESTING   TANBARK 


465 


to  dry  and  curl  up.  Trees  from  3  inches  and  up  in  diameter 
are  also  peeled.  It  is  customary  to  cut  one  or  two  coils  from 
standing  poles  from  3  to  8  inches  in  diameter.  This  is  called 
"jayhawking"  and  is  very  wasteful  because  the  yield  per  tree 
is  low  and  good  bark  which  cannot  be  reached  is  often  left  on 
the  upper  portion  of  the  tree.  On  other  trees  the  bark  is 
removed  up  to  the  large  limbs  only.  An  average  workman 
will  peel  from  one  to  one  and  one-half  cords  of  bark  daily, 
and  an  expert  on  big  timber  may  occasionally  peel  four  or  five 
cords. 

In  three  weeks  the  bark  is  dry  enough  to  haul.  It  is  then 
bunched  by  hand  in  small  piles  to  which  narrow  sled  roads  are 
cut,  and  down  these  the  bark  is  sledded  to  wagon  roads  and 
again  piled.  It  is  then  hauled  to  market  or  railroad  on  wagons 
which  carry  from  three  to  four  cords  each.  In  rough  places  the 
bark  is  sometimes  transported  to  the  roads  on  mules.  From 
250  to  400  pounds  of  bark  are  loaded  on  a  pack  saddle  and 
carried  by  one  animal.  After  the  bark  has  been  hauled  to  the 
wagon  roads,  men  are  sent  through  the  forest  to  collect  and 
sack  the  chips.  These  come  chiefly  from  the  base  of  the  tree 
and  are  richer  in  tannin  than  the  bark  from  any  other  part  of 
the  bole. 

The  average  yield  of  bark  is  from  one  and  one-fourth  to  two 
cords  per  acre,  with  a  maximum  of  eight  cords. 


AMOUNT   OF   TANBARK  ON   TANBARK   OAK  TREES   OF 
DIFFERENT   SIZES  ^ 


Diameter. 

Height. 

Length  of  peeled 
trunk. 

Weight  of  bark. 

Dry  weight  of 
bark  (calculated). 

Inches. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

4-   9 

30-   50 

4-8 

IS-     80 

10-      70 

10-12 

40-  80 

16-32 

80-  350 

70-    250 

13-18 

80-100 

32-65 

350-  900 

250-   650 

19-24 

90-120 

65-80 

900-1700 

650-1200 

24-36 

I 15-140 

80-95 

1700-2500 

1200-1800 

36-48 

100-120 

80-90 

2500-4000 

1800-2800 

48-60 

100-120 

80-90 

3500-8000 

-\S  00-5  700 

1  From  the  California  Tan  Bark  Oak,  by  Willis  Linn  Jepson  and  H.  S.  Betts.  Bulletin  75,  U.  S. 
Forest  Service,  p.  lo. 


466  LOGGING 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE  TO   CHAPTER  XXVI 

Hough,  F.  B.:  Statistics  of  Forest  Products  Used  as  Tanning  Materials. 
Report  on  Forestry  Submitted  to  Congress  by  the  Commissioner  of  Agricul- 
ture, Washington,  1882,  pp.  68-128. 

Jepson,  W.  L.,  and  Betts,  H.  S.:  California  Tan  Bark  Oak,  Bui.  No.  75,  U.  S. 
Forest  Service,  Washington,  1911. 


APPENDIX 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

AERIAL   TRAMS 

Anonymous:  Aerial  Snubbing  Device.  The  Timberman,  Portland,  Oregon, 
April,  191 2,  pp.  49  and  52. 

Anonymous:  A  Newly  Patented  Aerial  Logging  Railway.  Western  Lumber- 
man, Toronto,  Ontario,  Canada,  December,  1912,  pp.  40-41. 

FoRSTER,  G.  R.:  Das  forstliche  Transportwesen,  Wien,  1888,  pp.  242-250. 

Gayer,  Karl:  Forest  Utilization.  (Schlich's  Manual  of  Forestry;  trans,  from 
the  German  by  W.  R.  Fisher,  second  edition.)  Bradbury,  Agnew  and  Com- 
pany, Ltd.,  London,  1908.     pp.  346-352. 

Newby,  F.  E.:  Handling  Logs  on  Steep  Ground  with  a  Gravity  Cable  System. 
The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  31-32. 

Steinbus,  Ferdinand:  Die  Holzbringung  im  bayerischen  Hochgebirge  unter 
den  heutigen  wirtschaftlichen  Verhaltnissen,  Munchen,  1897,  pp.  31-39. 

ANIMALS 

Allen,  E.  W.:   The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals.     Farmers'  Bui.  No.  22,  U.  S. 

Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  1901. 
Engineer  Field  Manual,  Parts  I-VI.     Professional  Papers  No.  29,  Corps 

of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army.     Third  (revised)  edition,  Washington,  1909,  pp. 

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Langworthy,  C.  F.:    Principles  of  Horse  Feeding.     Farmers'  Bui.,  No.  170, 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  1903. 

FOREST    PROTECTION 

Adams,  Daniel  W.:    Methods  and  Apparatus  for  the  Prevention  and  Control 

of  Forest  Fires,  as  Exemplified  on  the  Arkansas  National  Forest.     Bui.  113, 

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469 


47°  APPENDIX 

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GENERAL 

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Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1909. 
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1912. 
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APPENDIX  471 

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Dana,  S.  T.:   Paper  Birch  in  the  Northeast.     Cir.  163,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  Wash- 
ington, 1909,  pp.  23-27. 

Fox,  William  F.:   A  History  of  the  Lumber  Industry  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
Bui.  34,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Forestry,  Washington,  1902,  p.  59. 

Frothingham,  Earl  H.:    Second-growth  Hardwoods  in  Connecticut.     Bui.  96, 
U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  Washington,  1912,  pp.  20-23. 

Hawley,  R.  C,  and  Hawes,  A.  F.:    Forestry  in  New  England.     John  Wiley 
and  Sons,  New  York,  191 2.    pp.  235-243. 

Hosmer,  Ralph  S.,  and  Bruce,  Eugene  S.:   A  Forest  Working  Plan  for  Town- 
ship 40.     Bui.  No.  30,  U.  S.  Div.  of  For,,  Washington,  1901,  pp.  42-63. 


472  APPENDIX 

VVeigle,  W.  G.,  and  Frothixghau,  E.  H.:  The  Aspens;  Their  Growth  and 
Management.     Bui.  93,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  Washington,  191 1,  p.  10. 

Williams,  Asa  S.:  The  jNIechanical  Traction  of  Sleds.  Forestry  Quarterly, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  354-362. 

Southern  Yellow  Pine. 

Chapman,  C.  S.:   A  Working  Plan  for  Forest  Lands  in  Berkeley  County,  South 

Carolina.     Bui.  No.  56,  U.  S.  Bur.  of  For.,  Washington,  1905,  pp.  29-30. 
Chapman,    H.    H.:    An    Experiment    in    Logging    Longleaf    Pine.     Forestry 

Quarterly,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  385-395- 
Foster,  J.  H.:    Forest  Conditions  in  Louisiana.     Bui.   114,  U.  S.  For.  Ser., 

Washington,  191 2,  pp.  28-31. 
Reed,  Franklin  W.:    A  Workmg  Plan  for  Forest  Lands  in  Central  Alabama. 

Bui.  No.  68,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  Washington,  1905,  pp.  30-33. 

Southwest. 

WooLSEY,  Jr.,  T.  S.:  Western  Yellow  Pine  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  Bui. 
loi,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  Washington,  1911,  p.  43. 

West. 

Allen,  E.  T.:   The  Western  Hemlock.     Bui.  No.  33,  U.  S.  Bur.  of  For.,  1902, 

pp.  28-30. 
Berry,  Swift :    Notes  on  the  ^Management  of  Redwood  Lands.     Proceedmgs  of 

the  Society  of  American  Foresters,  Vol.  VI,  No.  i,  Washington,  1911,  pp., 

104-107. 
Cooper,  Albert  W.:   Sugar  Pine  and  Western  Yellow  Pine  in  California.     Bui. 

No.  69,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  Washington,  1906,  pp.  30-34. 
ECKBO,  Nels  B.:    Logging  in  the  Redwoods.     Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VII, 

No.  2,  pp.  139-142. 
Greenamyre,  H.  H.:    Lumbering  in  Colorado.     Forest  Club   Annual,    1909, 

University  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln,  pp.  43-60. 
Hallett,  W.  E.  S.:  Lumbering  Cottonwood  in  Nebraska.     Forest  Club  Annual, 

1909,  Univ.  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln,  pp.  35-38. 
Hoffman,  Bruce:    The  Sitka  Spruce  of  Alaska.     Proceedings  of  the  Society  of 

American  Foresters,  Vol.  VII,  No.  2,  pp.  232-235. 
Peed,  W.  W.  :  Methods  Employed  and  the  Costs  Incident  to  Logging  Redwood. 

The  Timberman,  August,  1909,  pp.  28-29. 
Polleys,  E.  G.:    A  Northern  Idaho  Lumbering  Operation.     The  Forest  Club 

Annual,  1910,  Univ.  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln,  pp.  104-111. 
Ross,  Kenneth:    Logging  b^^  Rail  in  Montana.      The    Timberman,  August, 

1912,  p.  47. 
Spenser,  F.  F.:    Modem  Sugar  and  Yellow  Pine  Operations  in  California. 

The  Timberman,  August,  191 2,  pp.  7o-73- 

West  Virginia. 

Farquhar,  Henry  H.:   Cost  of  Mountain  Logging  in  West  Virginia.     Forestry 

Quarterly,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  255-269. 
RoTHKUGEL,  Max:    Management  of  Spruce  and  Hemlock  Lands  in  West  Vir- 
ginia.   Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  40-46. 


APPENDIX  473 


LOGGING    RAILROADS 

Construction. 

Byrkit,  G.  M.:    Machine  for  Picking  up  Railroad  Track.     The  Timberman, 

Portland,  Oregon,  August,  191 2,  p.  48. 
Byrne,  Austin  T.:   Highway  Construction.     John  Wiley  and  Sons,  New  York, 

1901. 
Engineer  Field  Manual:    Parts  I-\T,  Professional  Papers  No.  29,  Corps  of 

Engineers,  U.  S.  Army.     Third  (revised)  Edition,  Washington,  1909. 
Engineers'  Hand  Book:  Useful  Information  for  Practical  Men.     Compiled 

for   E.  I.   duPont   deNemours    Powder   Company,   Wilmington,   Delaware, 

1908. 
Gillette,  H.  P. :  Earthwork  and  its  Cost.     McGraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  New  York, 

1912. 
:    Hand  Book  of  Cost  Data.     Myron  C.  Clark  Pub.  Co., 

Chicago,  1910. 
Johnson,  J.  B.:    Theory  and  Practise  of  Surveying.     John  Wiley  and  Sons, 

New  York,  1901. 
Railroad  Engineering,  Highways,  Paving,  City  Surveying.     International 

Library  of  Technology,  Vol.  35B,  Scranton,  Pa., 
SoMERViLLE,    S.    S.:     Building   Logging    Railroads   with   a   Pile-driver.     The 

Timberman,  August,  1909,  pp.  37-38. 
Tracy,  John  Clinton:    Plane  Surveying.     John  Wiley  and  Sons,  New  York, 

1908. 

Inclines. 

Clark,  A.  W.:    Overcoming  Grades  too  Steep  for  Geared  Locomotives.     The 

Timberman,  Portland,  Oregon,  August,  1909,  p.  34. 
MacLafferty,  T.  H.:    Handling  Logging  Trains  on  Excessive  Grades.     The 

Timberman,  July,  1911,  p.  44. 
Nestos,    R.    R.:     Aerial    Snubbing    Device.     The    Timberman,    August,  191 2, 

p.  49. 
Potter,    E.    O.  :     Utilization    of    the    Cable    Locomotive.     The    Timberman, 

August,  1909,  p.  34. 
Wentworth,  G.  K.:   Lowering  Logs  on  a  3200-foot  Incline.     The  Timberman, 

August,  1909,  p.  34. 
Williams,  Asa  S.:  Logging  by  Steam.     Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  19-21. 

Loading  and  unloading  log  cars. 

Anonymous:  Swinging  "Gill-poke"  Unloader.  The  Timberman,  Portland, 
Oregon,  October,  1909,  p.  23. 

Evenson,  O.  J.:  An  Improved  Log-loading  System.  The  Timberman,  August, 
1912,  p.  52. 

O'GORMAN,  J.  S.:  Unloading  Log  Cars  with  a  Stationary  Rig.  The  Timber- 
man, August,  1909,  p.  48- 

O'Hearne,  James:  Tilting  Log  Dumps.  The  Timberman,  August,  1912, 
pp.  68-69. 

Van  Orsdel,  John  T.:  Cableway  Loading  System.  The  Timberman,  July, 
1911,  p.  46. 


474  APPENDIX 

Location. 

Ellis,  L.  R.:  Necessity  for  an  Accurate  Topographic  Map  in  Logging  Opera- 
tions.    Timberman,  July,  1911,  pp.  49-53- 

Henry,  H.  P.:  Advantages  of  Topographic  Surveys  and  Logging  Plans.  The 
Timberman,  August,  191 2,  pp.  65-67. 

Peed,  W.  W.:  Necessity  for  the  Logging  Engineer  in  Modern  Logging  Opera- 
tions.    The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  47-49- 

Rankin,  R.  L.:  Practical  Topographical  Surveys  for  Building  Logging  Roads. 
The  Timberman,  March,  1912,  p.  27. 

Van  Orsdel,  John  P. :  Topographic  Survey  and  its  Economic  Value  in  Logging 
Operations.     The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  p.  64. 

-.    How  to   Obtain   the  Highest  Practical   Efficiency   in 

Woods  Operations.     The  Timberman,  September,  1910,  pp.  48-51. 

Wood,  A.  B.:  Accurate  Topographic  Map  is  a  Good  Investment  in  Logging 
Operations.     The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  p.  67. 

Motive  power  and  rolling  stock. 

Earle,  Robert  T. :  Adaptability  of  the  Gypsy  Locomotive  for  Logging  Purposes. 

The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  34-35. 
Engineer  Field  Manual:    Parts  I-VI,  Professional  Papers  No.  29,  Corps  of 

Engineers,  U.  S.  x\rmy.     Third  (revised)  Edition,  Washington.  1909. 
Evans,  W.  P.:    The  Mallet  Locomotive  in  the  Field  of  Logging  Operations. 

The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  61-64. 
Ives,  J.  F.:    Utilization  of  Compressed  Air  on  Logging  Trucks.     The  Timber- 
man, August,  1910,  p.  60. 
Ives,  J.  F.:    Fuel  Oil  as  a  Substitute  for  Wood  and  Coal  in  Logging.     The 

Timberman,  August,  1909,  p.  39. 
Harp,    C.    A.:    The    Gasoline   Locomotive  and   its   Availability  for   Logging 

Roads.     The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  57-58. 
Russell,  C.  W.:     Utilization  of  Air  on  Logging  Trucks.     The  Timberman, 

August,  1910,  p.  58. 
TuRNEY,  Harry:   Adjustable  Air-brake  Equipment  for  the  Control  of  Detached 

Trucks.     The  Timberman,  August,  191 2,  p.  54. 


LOG    RULES    AND    SCALING 

Cary,  Austin:  A  Manual  for  Northern  Woodsmen.     Published  by  Harvard 

University,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1901. 
Clark,    Judson   F.:     The    Measurement  of  Saw  Logs.      Forestry  Quarterly, 

Vol.  IV,  No.  2,  1906,  pp.  79-93. 
Forest   Service:   U.   S.   Department  of  Agriculture.      The  National  Forest 

Manual,  Washington,  1911. 
Graves,  Henry  Solon:  Forest  Mensuration.     John  Wiley  and  Sons,  New  York, 

1906. 
:    The  Woodsman's  Handbook  (revised  and  enlarged). 

Bulletin  36,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Washington,  1910. 
:    Recent  Log  Rules.    Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VII,  1909, 


pp.  144-146. 


APPENDIX  475 

TiEMANM,  H.  D.:   The  Log  Scale  in  Theory  and  Practice.     Proceedings  of  the 

Society  of  American  Foresters,  Vol.  V,  No.  i,  Washington,  19 to,  pp.  18-58. 
WooLSEY,    Jr.,    T.    W.:     Scaling    Government   Timber.     Forestry   Quarterly, 

Vol.  V,  No.  2,  1907. 
ZiEGLER,   E.   A.:    The   Standardizing  of  Log  Measures.     Proceedings  of  the 

Society  of  American  Foresters,  Vol.  IV,  No.  2,  1909,  pp.  172-184. 
ZoN,  Raphael:    Factors  Influencing  the  Volume  of  Wood  in  a  Cord.     Forestry 

Quarterly,  Vol.  I,  pp.  126-133. 


POWER    LOGGING 

Barry,  E.  J.:   Advantages  Accruing  to  the  Adoption  of  Electricity  in  Logging. 
The  Timberman,  August,  191 2,  pp.  32-33. 

Cole,  C.  O.:   DifBculties  Confronting  Electric  Log  Haulage.     The  Timberman, 
August,  191 2,  pp.  36-37. 

HiNE,  Thomas  W.:  Utility  of  the  Duplex  Logging  Engine  and  the  Duplex  Sys- 
tem of  Yarding.     The  Timberman,  August,  1910,  pp.  36-37. 

Kalb,  Henry   A.:    Utilization  of  Compressed  Air  for  Snubbing  Logs.     The 
Timberman,  August,  191 2,  p.  53. 

Mereen,  J.  D.:   Substitution  of  Electricity  for  Steam  in  Modern  Logging  Oper- 
ations.    The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  pp.  29-30. 

Stimson,  Chas.  W.:   Adoption  of  the  Lidgerwood  Skidder  System  (cableway) 
in  Logging  Fir  Timber.     The  Timberman,  August,  1909,  pp.  56-57. 

Thompson,  Jas.  R.:    Use  of  Electricity  on  Logging  Operations.     The  Timber- 
man, August,  19 10,  p.  64L. 

Williams,  Asa  S.:    Logging  by  Steam.     Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VI,  No.  i, 
PP-  1-33- 

SLIDES 

Fankhauser,  Dr.:    Rieswege  in  dem  Ostalpen.     Schweizerische  Zeitschrift  fiir 

Forstwesen,  March  and  April,  1906,  pp.  69-77  and  113-122. 
FoRSTER,  G.  R.:    Das  Forstliche  Transportwesen.     Verlag  von  Moritz  Perles, 

Wien,  1888.     pp.  45-68. 
Gayer,  Karl:   Forest  Utilization  (Schlich's  Manual  of  Forestry,  Vol.  V;    trans. 

by  W.  R.  Fisher).     Bradbury,  Agnew  and  Company,  Ltd.,  London,   1908. 

pp.  316-322. 
VoN  Almburg,  Dr.  F.  Augenholzer:    Beitrag  zur  Kenntnis  der  dynamischen 

Vorgange   beim   Abriesen   des   Holzes   in   Holzriesen.     Centralblatt   fiir  das 

gesamte  Forstwesen,  April,  191 1,  pp.  161-179. 

STANDING    TIMBER    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 

Bradfield,  Wesley:   Standing  Timber  in  Wood  Lots.     Report  of  the  National 

Conservation  Commission,  Senate  Document  No.  676,  60th  Congress,  2nd 

Session,  Vol.  II,  1909,  pp.  181-187. 
Romans,  G.  M.:    Standing  Timber  in  Possession  of  the  Federal  Government. 

Report  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission,  Sen.  Doc.  No.  676,  Vol.  II, 

1909,  pp.  192-195. 


476  APPENDIX 

Kellogg,  R.  S.:  Original  Forests.  Report  of  National  Conservation  Com- 
mission, Sen.  Doc.  676,  60th  Congress,  Vol.  II,  1909,  pp.  179-180. 

Peters,  J.  Girvin:  Standing  Timber  Owned  by  the  States.  Report  National 
Cons.  Comm.,  Sen.  Doc.  676,  Vol.  II,  1909,  p.  191. 

Smith,  Herbert  Knox:  Stand  of  Timber.  Report  of  National  Conservation 
Commission,  Sen.  Doc.  676,  Vol.  II,  1909,  pp.  188-190. 

The  Lumber  Industry:  Part  I,  Standing  Timber.  Bureau  of  Corporations, 
Dept.  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  1913. 

ZoN,  Raphael:  Foreign  Sources  of  Timber  Supply.  Report  of  National  Con- 
servation Commission,  Sen.  Doc.  676,  Vol.  II,  1909,  pp.  280-370. 


TAN    BARK   INDUSTRY 

Hough,  F.  B.:  Statistics  of  Forest  Products  Used  as  Tanning  Materials. 
Report  on  Forestry  submitted  to  Congress  by  the  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  1882,  pp.  68-128. 

Jepson,  W.  L.,  and  Betts,  H.  S.:  Cahfornia  Tan  Bark  Oak.  Bui.  No.  75, 
U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Washington,  191 1. 

TIMBER    BONDS 

Bartreli,  E.  E.:    Questions  of  Law  Encountered  in  Timber  Bond  Issues, 

Annals  of  the  American  Academy,  Supplement,  May,  1912,  Philadelphia, 

pp.  23-24. 
Branife,  E.  a.:    Timber  Bonds.     Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  American 

Foresters,  Vol.  VII,  No.  i,  Washington,  1912,  pp.  58-79. 
Cummings,  W.  J.:    Waste  Material  as  a  Source  of  Profit  and  Added  Security 

on  Timber  Bonds.    Annals  of  Am.  Acad.,  Suppl.,  May,  191 2,  Phila.,  pp.  76-80. 
Jones,  A.  F.:    Accountants  Relation  to  Timber  Bond  Issues.     Annals  of  Am. 

Acad.,  Suppl.,  May,  191 2,  Phila.,  pp.  51-58. 
Lacey,  J.  D.:    Science  of  Timber  Valuation.     Annals  of  Am.  Acad.,  Suppl., 

May,  1912,  Phila.,  pp.  9-22. 
McGrath,  T.  S.:   Timber  Bonds.     Craig-Wayne  Co.,  Chicago,  191 1. 
:   Timber  Bond  Features.     Annals  of  Am.  Acad.,  Suppl., 

May,  191 2,  Phila. 
Sackett,  H.  S.:  Timberland  Bonds  as  an  Investment.     American  Lumberman, 

Chicago,  IlHnois,  January  25,  1913,  pp.  33-35. 

TURPENTINE    ORCHARDING 

Fernow,  Bernhard  Eduard:   Effect  of  Turpentine  Gathering  on  the  Timber  of 

Longleaf  Pine.     Cir.  9,  U.  S.  Division  of  Forestry,  Washington,  1893. 
Herty,  Charles  Holmes:   A  New  Method  of  Turpentine  Orcharding.     Bui.  40, 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Forestry,  Washington,  1903. 

:    Practical  Results  of  the  Cup  and    Gutter  System  of 

Turpentining.     Cir.  34,  U.  S.  Bur.  of  For.,  Washington. 
:    Relation  of  Light  Chipping  to  the  Commercial  Yield 


of  Naval  Stores.     Bui.  90,  U.  S.  For.  Ser.,  Washington,  191 


APPENDIX  477 

KiRSCH,  Simon :  The  Origin  and  Development  of  Resin  Canals  in  the  Conif- 
erae  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Development  of  Tyloses  and  their  Co- 
relation  with  the  Thylosal  Strands  of  the  Pteridophytes.  Proceedings  Royal 
Society  of  Canada,  191 1. 

MoHR,  Charles:  The  Naval  Store  Industry.  The  Timber  Pines  of  the  Southern 
United  States,  Bui.  No.  13  (revised  edition),  U.  S.  Division  of  Forestr}-, 
Washington,  1897,  pp.  67-73. 

:  The  Naval  Stores  Industry.  Report  upon  the  In- 
vestigations of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1877-1898,  Washington,  1899, 
pp.  144-164. 

PiNCHOT,  Gifford:  A  New  Method  of  Turpentine  Orcharding.  Cir.  24,  U.  S. 
Bur.  of  For.,  Washington,  1903. 

SuDWORTH,  Geo.  B.:  Conservative  Turpentining.  Report  of  the  National 
Conservation  Commission,  Senate  Doc.  No.  676,  Washington,  1909,  pp. 
498-511. 

WASTE    IN    LOGGING 

Bryant,  R.  C:   The  Close  Utihzation  of  Timber.     Bui.  2,  Part  2,  Yale  Forest 

*■"  School,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1913. 

Cary,  Austin:  Practical  Forestry  on  a  Spruce  Tract  in  Maine.  Cir.  131,  U.  S. 
For.  Service,  pp.  5-6. 

Clapp,  Earle  H.:  Conservative  Logging.  Report  of  the  National  Conserva- 
tion Commission,  Senate  Docmnent  No.  676,  60th  Congress,  2nd  session, 
1909,  pp.  512-546. 

Lauderburn,  D.  E.:  Elimination  of  Waste  in  Logging.  Paper  Trade  Journal, 
New  York,  February  20,  1913,  pp.  189-199. 

Peters,  J.  Girvin:  Waste  in  Logging  Southern  Yellow  Pine.  Yearbook,  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1905,  pp.  483-494. 

Upson,  .\.  T.:  Waste  in  Logging  and  Milling  in  Colorado.  The  Forest  Club 
Annual,  1910,  University  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln,  pp.  66-77. 


WATER    TRANSPORT 
Flumes. 

Robertson,  J.  E.:    The  Log  Flume  as  a  Means  of  Transporting  Logs.     The 

Timberman,  August,  1909,  pp.  45-46. 
Starbird,  W.  D.:    Flumes.     The  Timberman,  August,  1912,  pp.  42-44. 
Steel,  Francis  R.:    Lumber  Flumes.     Bulletin  of  the  Harvard  Forest  Club, 
Vol.1,  1911. 

Streams. 

A  Digest  of  the  Laws  Relating  to  Logging  which  have  been  Enacted  in  the 

Different  States.     Polk's  Lumber  Directory,  1904-1905,  R.  L.  Polk  and  Co., 

Chicago,  pp.  96-150E. 
Barrows,  H.  K.,  and  Babb,  C.  C:    Log  Driving  and  Lumbering.     Water 

Resources  of  the  Penobscot  River,  Maine.     Water  Supply  Paper  279,  U.  S. 

Geological  Survey,  Washington,  1912,  pp.  211-220. 


478  APPENDIX 

Bridges,  J.  B.:   Definition  of  the  Law  Governing  the  Use  of  Driving  Streams. 

The  Timberman,  August,  19 lo,  pp.  64F  and  64G. 
:     Laws   Governing   the    Use   of   Streams   for   Logging 

Purposes  (Pacific  Coast).     The  Timberman,  August,  1909,  pp.  49-51. 
Fastabend,  John  A.:    Ocean  Log  Rafting.     The  Timberman,  August,  1909, 

pp.  38-39. 

A   PARTIAL   LIST   OF   TRADE   JOURNALS   PUBLISHED   IN   THE 
INTEREST   OF   THE   LUMBER  INDUSTRY 

American  Ltimhcrman.     Chicago,  Illinois.     Weekly,  $4.     (General.) 

Barrel  and  Box.     Chicago,  Illinois.  Monthly,  $1.50.    (Cooperage  and  box  trade.) 

Canada  Lumberman  and  Woodworker.    Toronto,  Ontario,  Canada.     Monthly, 

$2.     (General.) 
Hardwood  Record.     Chicago.     Semi-monthly,  $2.     (Hardwood  trade.) 
Lumber  Trade  Journal.     New  Orleans,  La.    Semi-monthly,  $2.    (Southern  lum- 
ber trade.) 
Lumber  World  Review.     Chicago.     Semi-monthly,  $2.     (General.) 
New  York  Lumber  Trade  Journal.    New  York.     Semi-monthly,  $2.     (Eastern 

lumber  trade.) 
Paper  Trade  Journal.     New  York.     Weekly,  $4.     (Paper  and  pulp  trade.) 
Pioneer  Western  Lumberman.     San  [Francisco,  California.     Semi-monthly,  $2. 

(Pacific  Coast  lumber  interests,  especially  in  California.) 
St.  Louis  Lumberman.     St.  Louis,  Missouri.     Semi-monthly,  $2.     (General,  al- 
though chiefly  devoted  to  yellow  pine  interests.) 
Southern    Industrial    and    Lumber    Review.     Houston,    Te.xas.     Monthly,    $1. 

(Southwestern  lumber  interests.) 
Southern  Lumber  Journal.     Wilmington,  North  Carolina.     Monthly,  $3.     (At- 
lantic Coast  lumber  interests.) 
Southern  Lumberman.     Nashville,  Tennessee.     Weekly,  $4.     (General,  although 

devoted  largely  to  the  hardwood  interests.) 
The  Timberman.     Portland,  Oregon.     Monthly,  $2.     (Pacific  Coast  interests, 

chiefly  logging.) 
West  Coast  Lumberman.     Tacoma,  Washington.     Monthly,  $1.     (West  Coast 

lumber  interests.) 
Western  Lumberman.    Toronto,  Ontario,  Canada.     Monthly,    $2.     (Canadian 

lumber  interests.) 
Wood  Craft.     Cleveland,  Ohio.     Monthly,  $1.     (Wood-working  industries.) 
Wood    Worker.     Indianapolis,    Indiana.     Monthly,   $1.      (Wood-working    in- 
dustries.) 


TERMS    USED   IN   LOGGING 


TERMS   USED    IN   LOGGING  ^ 

[Letters  in  parentheses  following  definitions  indicate  the  forest  regions  (see  Fig.  i)  in  which  the 
terms  as  defined  are  used. 

(Gen.)  =  General  =  In  all  forest  regions  of  the  United  States. 
(C.  H.  F.)  =  Central  Hardwood  Forest. 
(N.  F.)  =  Northern  Forest. 
(App.)  =  Appalachian  Forest. 
(L.  S.)  =  Lake  States  Forest. 
(N.  W.)  =  North  Woods. 
(S.  F.)  =  Southern  Forest. 
(R.  M.  F.)  =  Rocky  Mountain  Forest. 
(P.  C.  F.)  =  Pacific  Coast  Forest. 
In  a  few  instances  very  local  terms  are  ascribed  to  a  State  instead  of  to  a  forest  region.] 

Alder  grab.     The  stem  of  an  alder,  or  other  small  tree,  which  is  bent  over  and 

plugged  into  a  hole  bored  in  a  boom  stick,  or  secured  in  some  other  way, 

to  hold  a  boom  or  logs  inshore.     (N.  F.) 
Alligator,  n.     i.  A  boat  used  in  handling  floating  logs.     It  can  be  moved 

overland  from  one  body  of  water  to  another  by  its  own  power,  usually 

apphed  through  drum  and  cable.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

2.   A  device,  often  made  from  the  fork  of  a  tree,  on  which  the  front  end 

of  a  log  is  placed  to  facilitate  skidding  on  swampy  ground.     (S.  F.) 
Anchor  line.     A  line  attached  to  a  small  buoy  and  to  one  fluke  of  an  anchor 

used  in  towing  a  raft  of  logs.     It  is  employed  to  free  the  anchor  when  fast 

to  rocks  or  snags.     (N.  F.) 
Apron,  n.     i.  A  platform  projecting  downstream  from  the  sluiceway  of  a 

dam  to  launch  well  into  the  stream  logs  which  pass  through  the  sluiceway. 

(Gen.) 
2.   A  platform  built  of  timbers  at  the  foot  of  a  slide,  which  guides  in  the 

desired  direction  logs  leaving  the  slide.     (Gen.) 
Ark,  n.     See  Wanigan. 

Back  line.     See  Haul  back. 

Ballhooter,  «.     One  who  rolls  logs  down  a  hillside.     (App.) 

Bank,  v.     See  Bank  up,  to. 

Bank,  n.     i.   See  Landing. 

2.   The  logs  cut  or  skidded  in  one  day  above  the  required  amount  and 

held  over  by  the  saw  crew  or  skidders,  to  be  reported  when  the  required 

daily  number  is  not  reached.     (N.  F.) 

1  From  Terms  Used  in  Forestry  and  Logging,  Bui.  6i,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  For- 
estry, Washington,  1905. 

.  481 


482  APPENDIX 

Banking  ground.     See  Landing. 

Bank  up,  to.     To  pile  up  logs  on  a  landing.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  bank. 
Barker,  n.     One  who  peels  bark  in  gathering  tanbark.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  peeler,  spudder. 
Barking  iron.     See  Spud. 

Bark  mark.     A  symbol  chopped  into  the  side  of  a  log  to  indicate  its  owner- 
ship;   when  used  with  the  end  mark  it  serves  as  an  additional  means  of 

identification.     (Gen.)     See  Mark. 
Syn.:  side  mark.     (N.  F.) 
Bark  marker.     One  who  cuts  the  bark  mark  on  logs.     (Gen.) 
Barn  boss.     One  who  has  charge  of  the  stables  in  a  logging  camp.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :  feeder.     (N.  W.) 
Batten,  n.     A  log  less  than  1 1  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end.     (Maine.) 
Battery,  n.     Two  or  more  donkey  engines  for  dragging  logs,  set  at  intervals 

on  a  long  skid  road.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Beaver,  n.     See  Swamper. 
Becket,  n.     A  large  hook  used  in  loading  logs  on  cars  by  means  of  tackle. 

(P.  C.  F.) 
Bed  a  tree,  to.     To  level  up  the  path  in  which  a  tree  is  to  fall,  so  that  it  may 

not  be  shattered.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Bicycle,  n.     A  traveHng  block,  used  on  a  cable  in  steam  skidding.     (S.  F.) 
Bigness  scale.     See  Full  scale. 
Big  Wheels.     Sec  Logging  wheels. 
Binder,  ;/.     A  springy  pole  used  to  tighten  a  binding  chain.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  jim  binder. 
Binding  chain.     A  chain  used  to  bind  together  a  load  of  logs.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  wrapper  chain.     (N.  F.) 
Binding  Logs.     Logs  placed  on  the  top  of  the  chain  binding  a  load,  in  order 

to  take  up  the  slack.     (Gen.) 
Birl,  V.     To  cause  a  floating  log  to  rotate  rapidly  by  treading  upon  it.     (Gen.) 
Bitch  chain.     A  short,  heavy  chain  with  hook  and  ring,  used  to  fasten  the 

lower,  end  of  a  gin  pole  to  a  sled  or  car  when  loading  logs.     (N.  F.) 
Blaze,  V.     To  mark,  by  cutting  into  trees,  the  course  of  a  boundary,  road, 

trail  or  the  like.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  spot.     (N.  W.) 
Block,  n.     See  Brail. 
Blow  down.     See  Windfall. 
Blue  jay.     See  Road  monkey. 
Bluing,  n.     The  result  of  fungus  attack,  which  turns  the  sapwood  of  certain 

trees  blue.     (Gen.) 
Bob,  ;/.     See  Dray. 
Bobber,  u.     See  Deadhead. 
Bob  logs,  to.     To  transport  logs  on  a  bob  or  dray.     (N.  F.) 


APPENDIX  483 

Body  wood.     Cord  wood  cut  from  those  portions  of  the  stem  of  trees  which 

are  clear  of  branches.     (N.  F.) 
Bolster,  ;/.     See  Bunk. 
Boom,  n.     Logs  or  timbers  fastened  together  end  to  end  and  used  to  hold 

floating  logs.     The  term  sometimes  includes  the  logs  inclosed,  as  a  boom 

of  logs.     (Gen.) 
Boomage,  n.     Toll  for  use  of  a  boom.     (Gen.) 
Boom  buoy.     See  Boom  stay. 

Boom  chain.     A  short  chain  which  fastens  boom  sticks  end  to  end.     (Gen.) 
Boom  company.     A  corporation  engaged  in  handling  floating  logs,  and 

owning  booms  and  booming  privileges.     (N.  F.) 
Boom  pin.     A  wooden  plug  used  to  fasten  to  boom  sticks  the  chain,  rope,  or 

withe  which  holds  them  together.     (Gen.) 
Boom  rat.     One  who  works  on  a  boom.     (N.  F.) 
Boom  stay.     A  heavy  weight  used  to  anchor  booms  in  deep  water;    its 

position  is  indicated  by  a  pole  or  float  attached  to  it.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  boom  buoy. 
Boom  stick.     A  timber  which  forms  part  of  a  boom.     (Gen.) 
Bottle  butted.     See  Swell  butted. 
Bottom  sill.     See  Mudsill. 

Brail,  v.     To  fasten  logs  in  brails.  • 

Brail,  /?.     A  section  of  a  log  raft,  six  of  which  make  an  average  tow.     (L.  S.) 

Syn.:  block.     (S.  F.) 
Brake  sled.     A  logging  sled  so  constructed  that,  when  the  pole  team  holds 

back,  a  heavy  iron  on  the  side  of  each  runner  of  the  forward  sled  is  forced 

into  the  roadbed.     (N.  F.) 
Brand,  n.     See  Mark. 
Break  out,  to.     i.   To  start  a  sled  whose  runners  are  frozen  to  the  ground. 

(N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
2.   To  open  a  logging  road  after  heavy  snowfall.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Breastwork  log.     See  Fender  skid. 
Briar,  /;.     A  crosscut  saw.     (Gen.) 
Bridle,  ;/.     A  device  for  controlling  the  speed  of  logs  on  a  skid  road.     It 

consists  of  a  short  rope  with  two  hooks  at  one  end,  which  are  driven  into 

the  first  log  of  the  turn;   at  the  other  end  is  a  clamp  which  runs  over  the 

cable.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Bridle  man.     One  who  follows  a  turn  of  logs  down  the  skid  road  and  tends 

the  "  bridle."     (P.  C.  F.) 
Broadleaf,  a.     See  Hardwood. 
Brow  skid.     The  chief  beam  in  a  frame  to  which  tackle  for  loading  logs  on 

cars  is  fastened.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:  draw  skid,  lead  log. 
Brush  a  road,  to.     To  cover  with  brush  the  mudholes  and  swampy  places 

in  a  logging  road,  to  make  it  solid.     (N.  F.) 


484  APPENDIX 

Brush  snow  fence.    A  snowbreak  to  protect  a  logging  road;    used  most 

commonly  on  wide  marshes.     It  consists  of  brush  which  is  set  upright 

in  the  ground  before  it  freezes.     (N.  F.) 
Brutting  crew.     A  crew  which  rolls  logs  down  slopes  too  steep  for  teams. 

(App.) 
Buck,  V.     I.   To  saw  felled  trees  into  logs.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.    To  bring  or  carry,  as  to  buck  water  or  wood.     (Gen.) 
Bucket,  «.     I.    One  who  saws  felled  trees  into  logs.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn. :  cross  cutter. 

2.   One  who  brings  or  carries.     See  Buck. 
Buckwheat,  v.     See  Hang  up,  to. 
Buckwheater,  «.     A  novice  at  lumbering.     (Gen.) 
Bull  chain,     i.    A  very  heavy  chain,  to  which  a  number  of  short  chains,  with 

hooks  on  one  end  and  dogs  on  the  other,  are  attached.     It  is  used  to  draw 

logs  from  the  mill  pond  up  the  gangway.     (Gen.) 
2.   See  Jack  chain. 
Bull  cook.     See  Chore  boy. 
Bull  donkey.     A  large  donkey  engine  which,  by  drum  and  cable,  drags  logs 

from  the  place  where  they  are  yarded  to  a  landing.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Bully,  II.     A  common  name  for  the  foreman  or  boss  of  a  logging  camp. 

(N.  F.) 
Bummer,  11.     A  small  truck  with  two  low  wheels  and  a  long  pole,  used  in 

skidding  logs.     (N.  F.,  S.  F.) 
Syn.:  drag  cart,  skidder. 
Bunch  load,  to.     To  encircle  several  logs  with  a  chain  and  load  them  at  once, 

by  steam  or  horse  power.     (N.  F.) 
Bunch  logs,  to.     To  collect  logs  in  one  place  for  loading.     (Gen.) 
Bunk,  V.     To  place  upon  the  bunks,  as  to  "  bunk  a  log."     (Gen.) 
Bunk,  II.     I.   The  heavy  timber  upon  which  the  logs  rest  on  a  logging  sled. 

(N.  F.) 
Syn. :  bolster. 

2.  The  cross  beam  on  a  log  car  or  truck,  on  which  the  logs  rest.     (Gen.) 

3.  A  log  car  or  truck.     (S.  F.,  P.  C.  F.) 
Bunk  chain.     See  Toggle  chain. 

Bunk  hook.     The  hook  attached  to  the  end  of  the  bunk  on  a  logging  car, 

which  may  be  raised  to  hold  the  logs  in  place  or  lowered  to  release  them. 

(Gen.) 
Bunk  load.     A  load  of  logs  not  over  one  log  deep;    i.e.,  in  which  every  log 

rests  on  the  bunks.     (Gen.) 
Bunk  spikes.     Sharp  spikes  set  upright  in  the  bunks  of  a  logging  sled  to  hold 

the  logs  in  place.     (N.  F.) 
Bush  a  road,  to.     To  mark  the  route  of  a  logging  road  across  a  marsh  or  the 

ice  by  setting  up  bushes.     (N.  F.) 
Butt,  n.     The  base  of  a  tree,  or  the  big  end  of  a  log.     (Gen.) 


APPENDIX  485 

Butt  cut.     I.   The  first  log  above  the  stump.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  butt  log.     (Gen.) 

2.   In  gathering  tanbark,  the  section  of  bark  taken  from  the  butt  of  a 
tree  before  felling  it  for  further  peeling.     (N.  F.) 
Butt  hook.     The  hook  by  which  the  cable  is  attached  to  the  tackle  on  the 

logs.     (P.  C.F.) 
Butt  log.     Sec  Butt  cut. 

Butt  off,  to.     I.   To  cut  a  piece  from  the  end  of  a  log  on  account  of  a  defect. 
(Gen.) 
Syn.:  long  butt,  to.     (P.  C.  F.,  App.) 
2.   To  square  the  end  of  a  log.     (N.  F.) 
Buttress,  n.     A  wall  or  abutment  built  along  a  stream  to  prevent  the  logs 

in  a  drive  from  cutting  the  bank  or  jamming.     (Gen.) 
Butt  team.     In  a  logging  team  of  four  or  more,  the  pair  nearest  the  load. 
(Gen.) 

Camp  inspector.  A  lazy  lumberjack,  who  goes  from  one  logging  camp  to 
another,  working  only  a  short  time  in  each.     (N.  F.) 

Cannon  a  log,  to.  In  loading  logs  by  steam  or  horse  power,  to  send  up  a  log 
so  that  it  swings  crosswise,  instead  of  parallel  to  the  load.     (N.  F.) 

Cant  dog.     See  Cant  hook. 

Cant  hook.     A  tool  like  a  peavey,  but  having  a  toe  ring  and  lip  at  the  end 
instead  of  a  pike.     See  Peavey.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  cant  dog. 

Cap,  n.  A  cone  of  sheet  iron  or  steel,  with  a  hole  in  the  end  through  which  a 
chain  passes,  which  is  fitted  over  the  end  of  a  log  before  snaking  it,  to 
prevent  catching  on  stumps,  roots  or  other  obstacles,  in  steam  skidding. 
(S.  F.) 

Catamaran,  n.  A  small  raft  carrying  a  windlass  and  grapple,  used  to  re- 
cover sunken  logs.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  sinker  boat  (Gen.),  monitor,  pontoon  (P.  C.  F.) 

Catch  boom.  A  boom  fastened  across  stream  to  catch  and  hold  floating 
logs.     (Gen.) 

Catface,  11.     A  partly  healed  over  fire  scar  on  the  stem  of  a  tree.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Catpiece,  n.  A  small  stick  in  which  holes  are  made  at  regular  intervals, 
placed  on  the  top  of  uprights  firmly  set  in  floating  booms.  The  uprights 
are  fitted  to  enter  the  holes  in  the  catpiece,  so  as  to  narrow  or  widen  the 
space  between  the  booms  at  the  entrance  to  a  sluiceway  or  sorting  jack. 
The  catpiece  is  held  by  the  uprights  high  enough  above  water  to  allow 
logs  to  float  freely  under  it.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Cattyman,  n.     An  expert  river  driver.     (N.  F.) 

Center  jam.     A  jam  formed  on  an  obstacle  in  the  middle  of  a  stream,  and 
which  does  not  reach  either  shore.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  stream  jam. 


486  APPENDIX 

Chain  grapples.  See  Grapples. 
Chain  tender.  See  Sled  tender. 
Check,  n.     A  longitudinal  crack  in  timber  caused  by  too  rapid  seasoning. 

(Gen.) 

Syn.:  season  check. 
Cheese  block.     See  Chock  block. 
Chock  block.     A  small  wedge  or  block  used  to  prevent  a  log  from  rolling. 

(Gen.) 

Syn.:  cheese  block.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Choker,  n.     A  noose  of  wire  rope  by  which  a  log  is  dragged.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Choker  man.     The  member  of  a  yarding  crew  who  fastens  the  choker  on  the 

logs.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Chopper,  a.     See  Faller. 
Chore  boy.     One  who  cleans  up  the  sleeping  quarters  and  stable  in  a  logging 

camp,  cuts  firewood,  builds  fires  and  carries  water.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  bull  cook,  flunkey,  shanty  boss. 
Chunk,  V.     To  clear  the  ground,  with  engine  or  horses,  of  obstructions  which 

cannot  be  removed  by  hand.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Chunk  up,  to.     To  collect  and  pile  for  burning  the  slash  left  after  logging. 

(N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Churn  butted.     See  Swell  butted. 
Chute,  n.     See  Slide. 

Coal  off,  to.     To  cut  a  forest  clean  for  charcoal  wood.     (N.  F.) 
Commissary,  n.     A  general  store  for  supplying  lumbermen.     (App.,  S.  F.) 

See  Van. 
Conk,  n.     i.   The  decay  in  the  wood  of  trees  caused  by  a  fungus.     (N.  F., 

P.  C.  F.) 

2.   The  visible  fruiting  organ  of  a  tree  fungus.     (N.  F.,  P.  C.  F.) 
Conky,  a.     Affected  by  conk.     (N.  F.,  P.  C.  F.) 
Cook  camp.     The  building  used  as  kitchen  and  dining  room  in  a  logging 

camp.     (Gen.) 

S>'Ti.:  cook  house,  cook  shanty. 
Cookee,  n.     Assistant  cook  and  dishwasher  in  a  logging  camp.     (Gen.) 
Cook  house.     See  Cook  camp. 
Cook  shanty.     See  Cook  camp. 
Corkscrew,  u.     A  geared  logging  locomotive.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Syn.:  stem-winder.     (App.) 
Coma-  binds.     Four  stout  chains,  used  on  logging  sleds,  to  bind  the  two 

outside  logs  of  the  lower  tier  to  the  bunks,  and  thus  give  a  firm  bottom  to 

the  load.     (N.  F.) 
Comer  man.     In  building  a  camp  or  barn  of  logs,  one  who  notches  the  logs 

so  that  they  will  fit  closely  and  make  a  square  corner.     (N.  F.) 
Coupling  grab.     See  Grapples. 


APPENDIX  487 

Crab,  n.     A  small  raft  bearing  a  windlass  and  anchor,  used  to  move  log 

rafts  upstream  or  across  a  lake.     (N.  F.,  S.  F.) 
Cradle,  n.     A  framework  of  timbers  in  which  ocean-going  rafts  of  logs  are 

built.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Cradle  knolls.     Small  knolls  which  require  grading  in  the  construction  of 

logging  roads.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Crazy  chain.     The  short  chain  used  to  hold  up  that  tongue  of  a  sprinkler 

sled  which  is  not  in  use.     (N.  F.) 
Crib,  n.     Specifically,  a  raft  of  logs;    loosely  applied  to  a  boom  of  logs. 

(N.  F.) 
Crib  logs,  to.     To  surround  floating  logs  with  a  boom  and  draw  them  by  a 

windlass  on  a  raft  (a  crab),  or  to  tow  them  with  a  steamboat.     (N.  W., 

L.  S.) 
Cross  chains.     Chains  connecting  the  front  and  rear  sleds  of  a  logging  sled. 

(N.  F.) 
Cross  cutter.     See  Bucker. 
Cross  haul.     The  cleared  space  in  which  a  team  moves  in  cross  hauling. 

(N.  F.) 
Cross  haul,  to.     To  load  cars  or  sleds  with  logs  by  horse  power  and  crotch 

or  loading  chain.     (Gen.) 
Crotch,  V.     To  cut  notches  on  opposite  sides  of  a  log  near  the  end,  into  which 

dogs  are  fastened.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Crotch,  n.     See  Dray. 
Crotch  chain.     A  tackle  for  loading  logs  on  sleds,  cars  or  skidways  by  cross 

hauling.     (Gen.) 
Crotch  tongue.     Two  pieces  of  wood,  in  the  form  of  a  V,  joining  the  front 

and  rear  sleds  of  a  logging  sled.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Cruise,  v.     To  estimate  the  amount  and  value  of  standing  timber.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  estimate,  value. 
Cruiser,  n.     One  who  cruises.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  estimator,  land  looker,  valuer. 
Cull,  n.     Logs  which  are  rejected,  or  parts  of  logs  deducted  in  measurement 

on  account  of  defects.     (Gen.) 
Cut,  n.     A  season's  output  of  logs.     (Gen.) 
Cut  a  log,  to.     To  move  one  end  of  a  log  forward  or  backward,  so  that  the 

log  will  roll  in  the  desired  direction.     (Gen.) 
Cut-oflf.    An  artificial  channel  by  which  the  course  of  a  stream  is  straightened 

to  facihtate  log  driving.     (N.  F.) 

Deacon  seat.     The  bench  in  front  of  the  sleeping  bunks  in  a  logging  camp. 

(N.  F.) 
Deadener,  n.     A  heavy  log  or  timber,  with  spikes  set  in  the  butt  end,  so 

fastened  in  a  log  slide  that  the  logs  passing  under  it  come  in  contact  with 

the  spikes  and  have  their  speed  retarded.     (Gen.) 


488  APPENDIX 

Deadhead,  n.     A  sunken  or  partly  sunken  log.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  sinker  (Gen.),  bobber  (N.  F.). 
Deadman,  n.     A  fallen  tree  on  the  shore,  or  a  timber  to  which  the  hawser  of 

a  boom  is  attached.     (N.  F.,  P.  C.  F.) 
Deadwater.     See  Stillwater. 

Decker,  ;/.     One  who  rolls  logs  upon  a  skid  way  or  log  deck.     (Gen.) 
Decking  chain.     Sec  Loading  chain. 
Deck  up,  to.     To  pile  logs  upon  a  skidway.     (Gen.) 
Deer  foot.     A  V-shaped  iron  catch  on  the  side  of  a  logging  car,  in  which  the 

binding  chain  is  fastened.     (Gen.) 
Dehorn,  v.     To  saw  off  the  ends  of  logs  bearing  the  owner's  mark  and  put 

on  a  new  mark.     (Kentucky.) 
Dingle,  n.     The  roofed-over  space  between  the  kitchen  and  the  sleeping 

quarters  in  a  logging  camp,  commonly  used  as  a  storeroom.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Dinkey,  n.     A  small  logging  locomotive.     (App.,  S.  F.) 
Dog,  //.     A  short,  heavy  piece  of  steel,  bent  and  pointed  at  one  end  and  with 

an  eye  or  ring  at  the  other.     It  is  used  for  many  purposes  in  logging,  and 

is  sometimes  so  shaped  that  a  blow  directly  against  the  line  of  draft  wiU 

loosen  it.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  tail  hook.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Dog  boat.     Sec  Rigging  sled. 
Dogger,  ;/.     One  who  attaches  the  dogS  or  hooks  to  a  log  before  it  is  steam 

skidded.     (S.  F.,  P.  C.  F.) 
Dog  hook.     I.   The  strong  hook  on  the  end  of  a  dogwarp.     (N.  F.) 

2.   A  hook  on  the  end  of  a  haul-up  chain  of  a  size  to  permit  its  being 

hooked  into  a  hnk  of  the  chain  when  the  latter  is  looped  around  a  log  or 

other  object.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Dogs,  n.     See  Skidding  tongs. 

Dogwarp,  n.     A  rope  with  a  strong  hook  on  the  end,  which  is  used  m  break- 
ing dangerous  jams  on  falls  and  rapids  and  in  moving  logs  from  other 

difficult  positions.     (N.  F.) 
Dog  wedge.     An  iron  wedge  with  a  ring  in  the  butt,  which  is  driven  into  the 

end  of  a  log  and  a  chain  hitched  in  the  ring  for  skidding  the  log  by  horse 

power;  also  used  in  gathering  up  logs  on  a  drive  by  running  a  rope  through 

the  rings  and  pulling  a  number  of  logs  at  a  time  through  marshes  or 

partially  submerged  meadows  to  the  channel.     (N.  F.) 
Dolly,  n.     See  Upright  roller. 

Dolphin,  n.     A  cluster  of  piles  to  which  a  boom  is  secured.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Donkey,  n.     A  portable  steam  engine,  equipped  with  drum  and  cable,  used 

in  steam  logging.     See  Road  donkey;    Yarding  donkey;    Bull  donkey; 

Spool  donkey.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Donkey  sled.     The  heavy  sled-like  frame  upon  which  a  donkey  engine  is 

fastened.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Dote,  n.     The  general  term  used  by  lumbermen  to  denote  decay  or  rot  in 

timber.     (Gen.) 


APPENDIX  489 

Doty,  a.     Decayed.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  dozy. 
Double  couplers.     Two  coupling  grabs  joined  by  a  short  cable,  used  for 

fastening  logs  together.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn. :  four  paws. 
Double  header.     A  place  from  which  it  is  possible  to  haul  a  full  load  of  logs 

to  the  landing,  and  where  partial  loads  are  topped  out  or  finished  to  the 

full  hauling  capacity  of  teams.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Down-hill  clevis.     A  brake  on  a  logging  sled,  consisting  of  a  clevis  encircling 

the  runner,  to  the  bottom  of  which  a  heavy  square  piece  of  iron  is  welded. 

(N.  F.) 
Dozy,  d.     Sec  Doty. 
Drag  cart.     Sec  Bummer. 
Drag  in,  to.     See  Dray  in,  to. 
Drag  road,     ^t'c  Dray  road;    Gutter  road. 
Drag  sled.     See  Dray. 
Draw  hook.     See  Gooseneck. 
Draw  skid.     See  Brow  skid. 
Dray,  //.     A  single  sled  used  in  dragging  logs.     One  end  of  the  log  rests  upon 

the  sled.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:  bob,   crotch,   drag  sled,  go-devil,   lizard,    scoot,   skidding   sled, 

sloop,  travois. 
Dray  in,  to.     To  drag  logs  from  the  place  where  they  are  cut  directly  to  the 

skidway  or  landing.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :  drag  in,  to. 
Dray  road.     A  narrow  road,  cut  wide  enough  to  allow  the  passage  of  a  team 

and  dray.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :  drag  road. 
Drive,  v.     To  float  logs  or  timbers  from  the  forest  to  the  mill  or  shipping 

point.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  float. 
Drive,  n.     i.   A  body  of  logs  or  timbers  in  process  of  being  floated  from  the 

forest  to  the  mill  or  shipping  point.     (Gen.) 

2.    That  part  of  logging  which  consists  in  floating  logs  or  timbers 

(Gen.) 
Drum  logs,  to.     To  haul  logs  by  drum  and  cable  out  of  a  hollow  or  cove. 

(App.) 
Dry-ki,  ;;.     Trees  killed  by  flooding.     (N.  F.) 
Dry  pick,  to.     As  applied  to  a  jam,  to  remove  logs  singly  while  the  water  is 

cut  off.     (N.  F.) 
Dry  roll,  to.     In  sacking  the  rear,  to  roll  stranded  logs  into  the  bed  of  the 

stream  from  which  the  water  has  been  cut  off  preparatory  to  flooding. 

(N.  F.) 
Dry  rot.     Decay  in  timber  without  apparent  moisture.     (Gen.) 
Dry  slide.     See  Slide. 


490  APPENDIX 

Dry  sloop,  to.     To  sloop  logs  on  bare  ground  when  the  slope  is  so  steep  that 

it  would  be  dangerous  to  sloop  on  snow.     (N.  F.) 
Dudler,  n.     See  Dudley. 
Dudley,  n.     An  engine  for  hauling  logs,  which  propels  itself  and  drags  its 

load  by  revolving  a  large  spool  around  which  are  several  turns  of  a  cable 

fixed  at  each  end  of  the  track.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn. :  dudler. 
Duffle,  n.     The  personal  belongings  of  a  woodsman  or  lumberjack  which  he 

takes  into  the  woods.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  dunnage.     (N.  W.) 
Dump  hook.     A  levered  chain  grab  hook  attached  to  the  evener  to  which  a 

team  is  hitched  in  loading  logs.     A  movement  of  the  lever  releases  the 

hook  from  the  logging  chain  without  stopping  the  team.     (N.  F.) 
Dump  logs,  to.     To  roll  logs  over  a  bluff,  or  from  a  logging  car  or  sled  into 

the  water.     (Gen.) 
Dunnage,  ;/.     Sec  Dufile. 
Dust  a  dam,  to.     To  fill  up  with  earth  or  gravel  the  cracks  or  small  holes 

between  planks  in  the  gate  of  a  splash  dam.     (N.  W.) 
Dutchman,  n.     A  short  stick  placed  transversely  between  the  outer  logs  of 

a  load  to  divert  the  load  toward  the  middle  and  so  keep  any  logs  from 

falling  off.     (N.  F.) 

End  mark.     See  Mark. 
Estimate,  v.     See  Cruise. 
Estimator,  >!.     Sec  Cruiser. 

Face  log.     See  Head  log. 

Faller,  //.     One  who  fells  trees.     (Gen.)     See  Head  faller;   Second  faller. 
Syn.:  sawyer  (Gen.),  chopper  (App.). 

Falling  ax.     An  ax  with  a  long  helve  and  a  long,  narrow  bit,  designed  especi- 
ally for  felling  trees.     (Gen.) 

Falling  wedge.     A  wedge  used  to  throw  a  tree  in  the  desired  direction,  by 
driving  it  into  the  saw  kerf.     (Gen.) 

Feeder,  ;/.     See  Barn  boss. 

Fender  boom.     See  Sheer  boom. 

Fender  skid.     A  skid  placed  on  the  lower  side  of  a  skidding  trail  on  a  slope 
to  hold  the  log  on  the  trail  while  being  skidded.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  breastwork  log,  glancer,  sheer  skid. 

Fid  hook.     A  slender,  flat  hook  used  to  keep  another  hook  from  slipping  on  a 
chain.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Filer,  n.     One  who  files  the  crosscut  saws  in  the  woods.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  saw  fitter. 

Fitter,  n.     i.   One  who  notches  the  tree  for  felling  and  after  it  is  felled  marks 
the  log  lengths  into  which  it  is  to  be  cut.     (N.  F.) 


APPENDIX  491 

2.   One  who  cuts  limbs  from  felled  trees  and  rings  and  slits  the  bark 
preparatory  to  peeling  tanbark.     (N.  F.) 
Float,  V.     See  Drive. 
Float  road.     A  channel  cleared  in  a  swamp  and  used  to  float  cypress  logs 

from  the  woods  to  the  boom  at  the  river  or  mill.     (S.  F.) 
Flood,  V.     See  Splash. 
Flood  dam.     See  Splash  dam. 
Flume,  V.     To  transport  logs  or  timbers  by  a  flume.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  sluice. 
Flume,  H.     An  inclined  trough  in  which  water  runs,  used  in  transporting 
logs  or  timbers.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  sluice,  water  slide,  wet  sHde. 
Flunkey,  n.     i.   An  assistant,  usually  either  to  the  engineer  of  a  donkey 
engine  or  to  the  cook  in  a  logging  camp.     (P.  C.  F.) 
2.   Sec  Chore  boy. 
Flying  drive.     A  drive  the  main  portion  of  which  is  put  through  with  the 

utmost  dispatch,  without  stopping  to  pick  rear.     (N.  F.) 
Fly  roUway.     A  skidway  or  landing  on  a  steep  slope,  from  which  the  logs  are 

released  at  once  by  removing  the  brace  which  holds  them.     (N.  F.) 
Fore-and-aft  road.     A  skid  road  made  of  logs  placed  parallel  to  its  direction, 
making  the  road  resemble  a  chute.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn. :  stringer  road. 
Four  paws.     See  Double  couplers. 
Frog,  «.     I.    The  junction  of  two  branches  of  a  flume.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.   A  timber  placed  at  the  mouth  of  a  slide  to  direct  the  discharge  of  the 
logs.     (Gen.)     Syn. :  throw  out. 
Full  scale.     Measurement  of  logs,  in  which  no  reduction  is  made  for  defects. 
(Gen.) 
Syn.:  bigness  scale.     (N.  F.) 

Gangway,  n.     The  incline  plane  up  which  logs  are  moved  from  the  water 

into  a  sawmill.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  jack  ladder,  log  jack,  log  way,  slip. 
Gap  stick.     The  pole  placed  across  the  entrance  of  a  sorting  jack  to  close  it, 

when  not  in  use.     (Gen.) 
Gee  throw.     A  heavy,  wooden  lever,  with  a  curved  iron  point,  used  to  break 

out  logging  sleds.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  starting  bar. 
Gin  pole.     A  pole  secured  by  guy  ropes,  to  the  top  of  which  tackle  for  loading 

logs  is  fastened.     (Gen.) 
Glancer,  n.     See  Fender  skid. 
Glancing  boom.     See  Sheer  boom. 
Glisse  skids.     Freshly  peeled  skids  up  which  logs  are  slid  instead  of  rolled 

when  being  loaded.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  slip  skids.. 


492  APPENDIX 

Go-back  road.     A  road  upon  which  unloaded  logging  sleds  can  return  to  the 
skidways  for  reloading,  without  meeting  the  loaded  sleds  en  route  to  the 
landing.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  short  road. 
Go-devil.     See  Dray. 

Gooseneck,  n.     i.   A  wooden   bar   used  to   couple   two   logging   trucks. 
(Gen.) 
Syn.:  rooster.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.  The  point  of  draft  on  a  logging  sled;  it  consists  of  a  curved  iron  hook 
bolted  to  the  roll.     (N.  F.) 

Syn. :  draw  hook. 

3.  A  curved  iron  driven  into  the  bottom  of  a  slide  to  check  the  speed  of 
descending  logs.     (App.) 

Goosepen.     A  large  hole  burned  in  a  standing  tree.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Grab  hook.     A  hook  having  a  narrow  throat,  adapted  to  grasp  any  link  of 

a  chain.     (Gen.) 
Grab  link.     Sec  Slip  grab. 
Grabs,  n.     See  Skidding  tongs. 
Grab  skipper.     A  short  iron  pry  or  hammer,  used  to  remove  the  skidding 

tongs  from  a  log.     (App.,  S.  F.) 
Grapples,  n.     i.   Two  small  iron  dogs  joined  by  a  short  chain,  and  used  to 

couple  logs  end  to  end  when  skidding  on  mountains,  so  that  several  logs 

may  be  skidded  by  one  horse  at  the  same  time.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  chain  grapples,  coupling  grab.     (P.  C.  F.) 
2.    See  Skidding  tongs. 
Gravel  a  dam,  to.     To  cover  with  gravel  or  earth  the  upstream  side  of  the 

timber  work  of  a  dam,  to  make  it  water  tight.     (N.  F.) 
Greaser,  ;/.     Sec  Road  monkey. 
Grips,  ;/.     See  Skidding  tongs. 
Ground  loader.     See  Send-up  man. 
Grouser,  11.     A  large  and  long  stick  of  squared  timber  sharpened  at  the  lower 

end  and  placed  in  the  bow  of  a  steam  logging  boat;  it  takes  the  place  of 

an  anchor  in  shallow  water,  and  can  be  raised  or  lowered  by  steam  power. 

(N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Guard  a  hill,  to.     To  keep  a  logging  road  on  a  steep  decline  in  condition  for 

use.     (N.  F.) 
Gun,  V.     To  aim  a  tree  in  felling  it.     In  the  case  of  very  large,  brittle  trees, 

such  as  redwood,  a  sighting  device  (gunning  stick)  is  used.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn. :  point,  swing.     (Gen.) 
Gunning  stick.     See  Gun. 
Gutterman.     See  Swamper. 

Gutter  road.     The  path  followed  in  skidding  logs.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  drag  road,  runway,  skidding  trail,  snaking  trail. 


APPENDIX  493 

Handbarrow.     Two  strong,  light  poles  held  in  position  by  rungs,  upon  which 
bark  or  wood  is  carried  by  two  men.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Syn.:  ranking  bar. 
Hand  pike.     A  piked  lever,  usually  from  6  to  8  feet  long,  for  handling 

floating  logs.     (Gen.) 
Hand  skidder.     One  who  accompanies  a  log  as  it  is  being  dragged  and  places 

short  skids  beneath  it.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Hang  the  boom,  to.     To  put  the  boom  in  place.     (Gen.) 
Hang  up,  to.     i.   To  fell  a  tree  so  that  it  catches  against  another  instead  of 
falling  to  the  ground.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  lodge  (Gen.),  buckwheat  (App.) 

2.   As  applied  to  river  driving,  to  discontinue;    thus  a  drive  may  be 
"  hung  up  "  for  lack  of  water  or  for  some  other  reason. 
Hardwood,  a.     As  applied  to  trees  and  logs,  broadleafed,  belonging  to  the 
dicotyledons.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  broadleaf. 
Hardwood,  n.     A  broadleafed,  or  dicotyledonous,  tree.     (Gen.) 
Haul,  n.     In  logging,  the  distance  and  route  over  which  teams  must  go 
between  two  given  points,  as  between  the  yard  or  skidway  and  the  land- 
ing.    (Gen.) 
Haul  back.     A  small  wire  rope,  traveling  between  the  donkey  engine  and  a 
pulley  set  near  the  logs  to  be  dragged,  used  to  return  the  cable.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn. :  back  line,  pull  back,  trip  Hne. 
Haul  up.     A  light  chain  and  hook  by  which  a  horse  may  be  hitched  to  a 

cable  in  order  to  move  it  where  desired.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Hay  road.     See  Tote  road. 

Hay  wire  outfit.     A  contemptuous  term  for  loggers  with  poor  logging  equip- 
ment.    (N.  F.) 
Head  block.     The  log  placed  under  the  front  end  of  the  skids  in  a  skidway 

to  raise  them  to  the  desired  height.     (N.  F.) 
Head  driver.     An  expert  river  driver  who,  during  the  drive,  is  stationed  at 
a  point  where  a  jam  is  feared.    Head  drivers  usually  work  in  pairs.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  log  watch  (N.  F.),  jam  cracker  (P.  C.  F.) 
Head  faller.     The  chief  of  a  crew  of  fallers.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Head  log.     i.   The  front  bottom  log  on  a  skidway.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :  face  log. 

2.    The  front  log  in  a  turn.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:  lead  log. 
Head  push.     See  Straw  boss. 

Headquarters,  n.     In  logging,  the  distributing  point  for  supplies,  equip- 
ment and  mail;    not    usually  the  executive  or    administrative  center. 
(Gen.) 
Head  tree.     In  steam  skidding,  the  tree  to  which  the  cable  upon  which  the 
traveler  runs  is  attached.     (S.  F.) 


494  APPENDIX 

Headworks,  n.  A  platform  or  raft,  with  windlass  or  capstan,  which  is 
attached  to  the  front  of  a  log  raft  or  boom  of  logs,  for  warping,  kedging 
or  winding  it  through  lakes  and  still  water,  by  hand  or  horse  power. 
(N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Helper,  n.     See  Second  faller. 

Hoist,  n.     See  Loading  tripod. 

Holding  boom.     See  Storage  boom. 

Hook  tender.  The  foreman  of  a  yarding  crew;  specifically,  one  who  directs 
the  attaching  of  the  cable  to  a  turn  of  logs.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Horse  dam.  A  temporary  dam  made  by  placing  large  logs  across  a  stream, 
in  order  to  raise  the  water  behind  it,  so  as  to  float  the  rear.     (N.  F.) 

Horse  logs,  to.  In  river  driving,  to  drag  stranded  logs  back  to  the  stream 
by  the  use  of  peaveys.     (N.  F.) 

Hovel,  n.     A  stable  for  logging  teams.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Ice  a  road,  to.     To  sprinkle  water  on  a  logging  road  so  that  a  coating  of  ice 

may  form,  thus  facihtating  the  hauhng  of  logs.     (N.  F.) 
Ice  guards.     Heavy  timbers  fastened  fan  shaped  about  a  cluster  of  boom 

piles  at  an  angle  of  approximately  30  degrees  to  the  surface  of  the  water. 

They  prevent  the  destruction  of  the  boom  by  ice,  through  forcing  it  to 

mount  the  guards  and  be  broken  up.     (N.  F.) 

Jack  chain.     An  endless  spiked  chain,  which  moves  logs  from  one  point  to 

another,  usually  from  the  mill  pond  into  the  sawmill.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  bull  chain.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Jack  ladder.     See  Gangway. 
Jackpot,  n.     i.  A  contemptuous  expression  applied  to  an  unskilful  piece  of 

work  in  logging.     (N.  F.) 

2.   An  irregular  pile  of  logs.     (App.) 
Jam,  n.     A  stoppage  or  congestion  of  logs  in  a  stream,  due  to  an  obstruction 

or  to  low  water.     (Gen.) 
Jam  cracker.     See  Head  driver. 
Jammer,  n.     An  improved  form  of  gin,  mounted  on  a  movable  framework, 

and  used  to  load  logs  on  sleds  and  cars  by  horse  power.     (N.  F.) 
Jam,  to  break  a.     To  start  in  motion  logs  which  have  jammed.     (Gen.) 
Jay  hawk,  to.     To  strip  one  4-foot  length  of  bark  from  a  tanbark  oak, 

leaving  the  tree  standing.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Jiboo,  V.     To  remove  a  dog  from  a  log.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Jigger,  V.     To  pull  a  log  by  horse  power  over  a  level  place  in  a  slide.   (Gen.) 

Syn.:  lazy  haul,  to. 
Jim  binder.     Sec  Binder. 

Jobber,  n.     A  logging  contractor  or  subcontractor.     (Gen.) 
Jobber's  sun.     A  term  applied  to  the  moon  in  a  jobber's  or  contractor's 

logging  camp,  on  account  of  the  early  and  late  hours  of  commencing  and 

ending  work.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 


APPENDIX  495 

Jumper,  n.     A  sled  shod  with  wood,  used  for  hauling  supplies  over  bare 
ground  into  a  logging  camp.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :  tote  sled. 

Katydid,  n.     See  Logging  wheels. 

Key  log.     In  river  driving,  a  log  which  is  so  caught  or  wedged  that  a  jam 

is  formed  and  held.     (Gen.) 
Kilhig,  n.     A  short,  stout  pole  used  as  a  lever  or  brace  to  direct  the  fall  of 

a  tree.     (N.  W.) 
Knot,  V.     See  Limb. 
Knot  bumper.     Sec  Limber. 
Knotter,  ;/.     See  Limber. 

Laker,  n.     A  log  driver  expert  at  handling  logs  on  lakes.     (N.  F.) 

Landing,  n.  i.  A  place  to  which  logs  are  hauled  or  skidded  preparatory  to 
transportation  by  water  or  rail.  A  rough  and  tumble  landing  is  one  in 
which  no  attempt  is  made  to  pile  the  logs  regularly.  (Gen.) 
Syn. :  bank,  banking  ground,  log  dump,  rollway,  yard. 
2.  A  platform,  usually  at  the  foot  of  a  skid  road,  where  logs  are  col- 
lected and  loaded  on  cars.  A  lightning  landing  is  one  having  such  an 
incline  that  the  logs  may  roll  upon  the  cars  without  assistance.     (Gen.) 

Landing  man.     One  who  unloads  logging  sleds  at  the  landing.     (N.  F.) 

Landing,  to  break  a.  To  roll  a  pile  of  logs  from  a  landing  or  bank  into  the 
water.     (Gen.) 

Land  looker.     See  Cruiser. 

Lap,  «.,  or  Lapwood,  «.     Tops  left  in  the  woods  in  logging.     (Gen.) 

Lash  pole.     A  cross  pole  which  holds  logs  together  in  a  raft.     (Gen.) 

Lazy  haul,  to.     See  Jigger. 

Lead,  n.  A  snatch  block  with  a  hook  or  loop  for  fastening  it  to  convenient 
stationary  objects,  used  for  guiding  the  cable  by  which  logs  are  dragged. 
(P.  C.  F.) 

Lead  line.  A  wire  rope,  with  an  eye  at  each  end,  used  to  anchor  the  snatch 
block  in  setting  a  lead.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Lead  log.     5«' Brow  skid;  Head  log. 

Lightning  landing.     See  Landing. 

Limb,  V.     To  remove  the  limbs  from  a  felled  tree. 
Syn.:  knot.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Limber,  n.     One  who  cuts  the  hmbs  from  felled  trees.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  knotter  (P.  C.  F.),  knot  bumper  (App.). 

Line  horse.  The  horse  which  drags  the  cable  from  the  yarding  engine  to  the 
log  to  which  the  cable  is  to  be  attached.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Lizard,  n.     See  Dray. 

Loader,  ».     i.   One  who  loads  logs  on  sleds  or  cars.     (Gen.) 
2.  See  Steam  loader. 


496  APPENDIX 

Loading  chain.     A  long  chain  used  in  loading  or  piling  logs  with  horses. 

(N.  F.) 
Syn.:  decking  chain. 
Loading  jack.     A  platformed  framework  upon  which  logs  are  hoisted  from 

the  water  for  loading  upon  cars.     (N.  F.) 
Loading  tripod.     Three  long  timbers  joined  at  their  tops  in  the  shape  of  a 

tripod,  for  holding  a  pulley  block  in  proper  position  to  load  logs  on  cars 

from  a  lake  or  stream.     (L.  S.) 
Syn.:  hoist. 
Lock  down.     A  strip  of  tough  wood,  with  holes  in  the  ends,  which  is  laid 

across  a  raft  of  logs.     Rafting  pins  are  driven  through  the  holes  into  the 

logs,  thus  holding  the  raft  together.     (N.  F.) 
Lodge,  to.     See  Hang  up,  to. 
Logan,  ;/.     See  Pokelogan. 

Log  deck.     The  platform  upon  a  loading  jack.     (Gen.) 
Log  dump.     See  Landing. 
Log  fixer.     Sec  Rosser. 
Logger,  ;;.     One  engaged  in  logging. 
Logging  sled.     The  heavy  double  sled  used  to  haul  logs  from  the  skidway  or 

yard  to  the  landing.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:  twin  sleds,  two  sleds,  wagon  sled. 
Logging-sled  road.     A  road,  leading  from  the  skidway  to  the  landing. 

(N.  F.) 
Logging  wheels.     A  pair  of  wheels,  usually  about  lo  feet  in  diameter,  for 

transporting  logs.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :  big  wheels,  katydid,  timber  wheels. 
Log  jack.     See  Gangway. 

Log  scale.     The  contents  of  a  log,  or  of  a  number  of  logs  considered  collec- 
tively.    (Gen.) 
Log,  to.     To  cut  logs  and  deliver  them  at  a  place  from  which  they  can  be 

transported  by  water  or  rail,  or,  less  frequently,  at  the  mill.     (Gen.) 
Log  watch.     See  Head  driver. 
Logway,  ii.     See  Gangway. 
Long  butt,  to.     Sec  Butt  off,  to. 
Loose-tongued  sloop.     See  Swing  dingle. 
Lubber  lift,  to.     To  raise  the  end  of  a  log  by  means  of  a  pry,  and  through  the 

use  of  weight  instead  of  strength.     (N.  F.) 
Lug  hooks.     A  pair  of  tongs  attached  to  the  middle  of  a  short  bar,  and  used 

by  two  men  to  carry  small  logs.     (Gen.) 
Lumber,  v.     To  log,  or  to  manufacture  logs  into  lumber,  or  both.     (Gen.) 
Lumberjack,  >i.     One  who  works  in  a  logging  camp.     (Gen.) 
Lumberman,  n.     One  engaged  in  lumbering.     (Gen.) 

Mark,  ;z.     A  letter  or  sign  indicating  ownership,  which  is  stamped  on  the 
ends  of  logs.     (Gen.)     See  Bark  mark. 
Syn. :  brand,  end  mark. 


APPENDIX  497 

Mark  caller.     In  sorting  logs,  one  who  stands  at  the  lower  end  of  the  sorting 

jack  and  calls  the  different  marks,  so  that  the  logs  may  be  guided  into  the 

proper  channels  or  pockets.     (Gen.) 
Marker,  n.     One  who  puts  the  mark  on  the  ends  of  logs.     (Gen.) 
Market,  n.     A  log  19  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end  and  13  feet  long. 

(New  York.) 
Syn.:  standard. 
Marking  hammer.     A  hammer  bearing  a  raised  device,  which  is  stamped  on 

logs,  to  indicate  ownership.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  marking  iron. 
Marking  iron.     See  Marking  hammer. 
Match,  V.     See  Mate. 
Mate,  V.     To  place  together  in  a  raft  logs  of  similar  size.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  match. 
Mill  pond.     The  pond  near  a  sawmill  in  which  logs  to  be  sawn  are  held. 

(Gen.) 
Monitor.     See  Catamaran. 
Moss,  c'.     To  fill  with  moss  the  crevices  between  the  logs  in  a  logging  camp. 

(N.  F.) 
Mud,  V.     To  fill  with  soft  clay  the  crevices  between  the  logs  in  a  logging 

camp.     (N.  F.) 
Mudboat,  u.     A  low  sled  with  wide  runners,  used  for  hauling  logs  in  swamps. 

(S.  F.,  N.  F.) 
Mudsill,  n.     The  bed  piece  or  bottom  timber  of  a  dam  which  is  placed  across 

the  stream,  usually  resting  on  rocks  or  in  mud.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  bottom  sill. 

Nick,  II.     See  Undercut. 

Nose,  V.     To  round  off  the  end  of  a  log  in  order  to  make  it  drag  or  slip  more 
easily.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  snipe. 
Notch,  V.     To  make  an  undercut  in  a  tree  preparatory  to  felling  it.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  undercut. 
Notch,  n.     See  Undercut. 

Peaker,  ;/.     i.  A  load  of  logs  narrowing  sharply  toward  the  top,  and  thus 

shaped  like  an  inverted  V.     (Gen.) 
2.   The  top  log  of  a  load.     (Gen.) 
Peavey,  n.     A  stout  lever,  from  5  to  7  feet  long,  fitted  at  the  larger  end  with 

a  metal  socket  and  pike  and  a  curved  steel  hook  which  works  on  a  bolt; 

used  in  handling  logs,  especially  in  driving.     A  peavey  differs  from  a  cant 

hook  in  having  a  pike  instead  of  a  toe  ring  and  hp  at  the  end.     (Gen.) 
Pecky,  a.     A  term  apphed  to  an  unsoundness  most  common  in  bald  cypress. 

(S.  F.) 
Syn. :  peggy. 


498  APPENDIX 

Peeler,  n.     See  Barker. 

Peggy,  a.     See  Pecky. 

Pickaroon,  n.     A  piked  pole  fitted  with  a  curved  hook,  used  in  holding  boats 

to  jams  in  driving,  and  for  pulling  logs  from  brush  and  eddies  out  into  the 

current.     (Gen.) 
Pick  the  rear,  to.     See  Sack  the  rear,  to. 
Pier  dam.     A  pier  built  from  the  shore,  usually  slanting  downstream,  to 

narrow  and  deepen  the  channel,  to  guide  logs  past  an  obstruction,  or  to 

throw  all  the  water  on  one  side  of  an  island.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  wing  dam. 
Pig,  n.     See  Rigging  sled. 
Pig  tail.     An  iron  device  driven  into  trees  or  stumps  to  support  a  wire  or 

small  rope.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Pike  pole.     A  piked  pole,  from  12  to  20  feet  long,  used  in  river  driving. 

(Gen.) 
Pitch  pocket.    A  cavity  in  wood  filled  with  resin.    (P.  C.  F.,  R.  M.  F.,  S.  F.) 
Pitch  streak.     A  seam  or  shake  filled  with  resin.     (Gen.) 
Plug  and  knock  down.     A  device  for  fastening  boom  sticks  together,  in  the 

absence  of  chains.     It  consists  of  a  withe  secured  by  wooden  plugs  in 

holes  bored  in  the  booms.     (N.  F.) 
Pocket  boom.     A  boom  in  which  logs  are  held  after  they  are  sorted.     (Gen.) 
Point,  V.     See  Gun. 
Pokelogan,  n.     A  bay  or  pocket  into  which  logs  may  float  off  during  a  drive. 

(N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Syn. :  logan. 
Pond  man.     One  who  collects  logs  in  the  mill  pond  and  floats  them  to  the 

gangway.     (Gen.) 
Pontoon.     See  Catamaran. 
Prize  logs.     Logs  which  come  to  the  sorting  jack  without  marks  denoting 

ownership.     (N.  F.) 
Pull  back.     See  Haul  back. 
Pullboat.     A  flatboat,  carrying  a  steam  skidder  or  a  donkey,  used  in  logging 

cypress.     (S.  F.) 
Pull  the  briar,  to.     To  use  a  crosscut  saw.     (N.  F.) 
Put  in,  to.     In  logging,  to  deliver  logs  at  the  landing.     (Gen.) 

Quickwater,  n.     That  part  of  a  stream  which  has  fall  enough  to  create  a 
decided  current.     (Gen.) 
Ant.:  Stillwater. 

Rafter  dam.     A  dam  in  which  long  timbers  are  set  on  the  upstream  side  at 
an  angle  of  from  20  to  40  degrees  to  the  water  surface.     The  pressure 
of  the  water  against  the  timbers  holds  the  dam   solidly  against   the 
stream  bed.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :  self-loading  dam,  slant  dam. 


APPENDIX  499 

Ram  pike.     A  tree  broken  off  by  wind  and  with  a  splintered  end  on  the 

portion  left  standing.     (N.  F.) 
Rank,  v.     To  haul  and  pile  regularly,  as,  to  rank  bark  or  cord  wood.     (Gen.) 
Ranking  bar.     See  Handbarrow. 

Ranking  jumper.     A  wood-shod  sled  upon  which  tanbark  is  hauled.     (N.  F.) 
Rave,  n.     A  piece  of  iron  or  wood  which  secures  the  beam  to  the  runners  of 

a  logging  sled.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Rear,  n.     The  upstream  end  of  a  drive;   the  logs  may  be  either  stranded  or 

floating.     "  Floating  rear  "  comprises  those  logs  which  may  be  floated 

back  into  the  current;   "  dry  rear,"  those  which  must  be  dragged  or  rolled 

back.     (Gen.) 
Receiving  boom.     See  Storage  boom. 
Ride,  n.     The  side  of  a  log  upon  which  it  rests  when  being  dragged. 

(Gen.) 
Ride  a  log,  to.     To  stand  on  a  floating  log.     (Gen.) 
Rigging,  11.     The  cables,  blocks  and  hooks  used  in  skidding  logs  by  steam 

power.     (Gen.) 
Rigging  sled.     A  sled  used   to  haul  hooks  and  blocks  on  a  skid  road. 

(P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:  dog  boat,  pig. 
Rigging  slinger.     i.  A  member  of  a  yarding  crew,  whose  chief  duty  is  to 

place  chokers  or  grabs  on  logs.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.   One  who  attaches  the  rigging  to  trees,  in  steam  skidding.     (S.  F.) 
Ring,  n.     A  section  of  tanbark,  usually  4  feet  long.     (N.  F.) 
Ring  rot.     Decay  in  a  log,  which  follows  the  annual  rings  more  or  less 

closely.     (Gen.) 
Rise,  n.     The  difference  in  diameter,  or  taper,  between  two  points  in  a  log. 

(Gen.) 
River  boss.     The  foreman  in  charge  of  a  log  drive.     (N.  F.) 
River  driver.     One  who  works  on  a  log  drive.     (Gen.) 
River  rat.     A  log  driver  whose  work  is  chiefly  on  the  river;   contrasted  with 

Laker.     (N.  F.) 
Road  donkey.     A  donkey  engine  mounted  on  a  heavy  sled,  which  drags  logs 

along  a  skid  road  by  winding  a  cable  on  a  drum.     It  has  a  second  drum  for 

the  haul  back.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Road  gang.     That  portion  of  the  crew  of  a  logging  camp  who  cut  out  logging 

roads  and  keep  them  in  repair.     (N.  F.) 
Road  monkey.     One  whose  duty  is  to  keep  a  logging  road  in  proper  condi- 
tion.    (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Syn.:  blue  jay,  greaser.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Roll,  n.     The  crossbar  of  a  logging  sled  into  which  the  tongue  is  set.     (N.  W., 

L.  S.) 

Syn.:  roller. 
Roller,  n.     See  Roll;  Upright  roller. 


500  APPENDIX 

Rolling  dam.  A  dam  for  raising  the  water  in  a  shallow  stream.  It  has  no 
sluiceways,  but  a  smooth  top  of  timber  over  which,  under  a  sufficient  head 
of  water,  logs  may  slide  or  roll.     (Gen.) 

Roll  the  boom,  to.  To  roll  a  boom  of  logs  along  the  shore  of  a  lake  against 
which  it  is  held  by  wind,  by  the  use  of  a  cable  operated  by  a  steamboat  or 
kedge.  The  cable  is  attached  to  the  outer  side  of  the  boom,  hauled  up, 
then  attached  again,  thus  propelling  the  boom  by  revolving  it  against 
the  shore  when  it  would  be  impossible  to  tow  it.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Roll  way,  n.     Sec  Landing. 

Rooster,  u.     See  Gooseneck. 

Rosser, ;/.  One  who  barks  and  smooths  the  ride  of  a  log  in  order  that  it  may 
slide  more  easily.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:  log  fixer  (P.  C.  F.),  slipper,  scalper  (App.). 

Rough  and  tumble  landing.     See  Landing. 

Round  timber.     Pine  trees  which  have  not  been  turpentined.     (S.  F.) 

Round  turn.  A  space  at  the  head  of  a  logging-sled  road,  in  which  the  sled 
may  be  turned  round  without  unhitching  the  team.     (N.  F.) 

Runner  chain.  A  chain  bound  loosely  around  the  forward  end  of  the  run- 
ners of  a  logging  sled  as  a  brake.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Runner  dog.  A  curved  iron  attached  to  a  runner  of  the  hind  sled  of  a 
logging  sled,  which  holds  the  loaded  sled  on  steep  hills  by  being  forced 
into  the  bed  of  the  road  by  any  backw^ard  movement.     (N.  F.) 

Runway.     See  Gutter  road. 

Rutter,  n.  A  form  of  plow  for  cutting  ruts  in  a  logging  road  for  the  runners 
of  the  sleds  to  run  jn.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 

Sack  the  rear,  to.  To  follow  a  drive  and  roll  in  logs  which  have  lodged  or 
grounded.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :  pick  the  rear,  to. 

Sack  the  slide,  to.     To  return  to  a  slide  logs  which  have  jumped  out.     (Gen.) 

Saddle,  ;/.  The  depression  cut  in  a  transverse  skid  in  a  skid  road  to  guide 
the  logs  which  pass  over  it.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Saddlebag,  v.  As  applied  to  a  boom,  to  catch  on  an  obstruction  and  double 
around  it.     (Gen.) 

Sampson,  n.  An  appliance  for  loosening  or  startmg  logs  by  horse  power. 
It  usually  consists  of  a  strong,  heavy  timber  and  a  chain  terminating  in  a 
heavy  swamp  hook.  The  timber  is  placed  upright  beside  the  piece  to  be 
moved,  the  chain  fastened  around  it,  and  the  hook  inserted  low  down  on 
the  opposite  side.  Leverage  is  then  applied  by  a  team  hitched  to  the 
upper  end  of  the  upright  timber.     (N.  F.) 

Sampson  a  tree,  to.  To  direct  the  fall  of  a  tree  by  means  of  a  lever  and  pole. 
(N.  F.) 

Sap  stain.     Discoloration  of  the  sapwood.     (Gen.) 

Saw  fitter.     See  Filer. 


APPENDIX  501 

Sawyer,  n.     See  Faller. 

Scale  book.     A  book  especially  designed  for  recording  the  contents  of  scaled 

logs.     (Gen.) 
Scaler,  ;;.     One  who  determines  the  volume  of  logs.     (Gen.) 
Scalper,  n.     See  Rosser. 
Scoot,  n.     See  Dray. 
Season  check.     See  Check. 
Second  faller.     The  subordinate  in  a  crew  of  fallers.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Syn.:  helper.     (N.  F.) 
Self-loading  dam.     See  Rafter  dam. 
Send-up  man.     That  member  of  a  loading  crew  who  guides  the  logs  up  the 

skids.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  ground  loader.     (N.  F.) 
Send  up,  to.     In  loading,  to  raise  logs  up  skids  with  cant  hooks,  or  by  steam 

or  horse  power.     (Gen.) 
Setting,  u.     The  temporary  station  of  a  portable  sawmill,  a  yarding  engine, 

or  other  machine  used  in  logging.     (Gen.) 
Shake,  //.     A  crack  in  timber,  due  to  frost  or  wind.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  windshake. 
Shanty  boat.     See  Wanigan. 
Shanty  boss.     See  Chore  boy. 
Sheer  boom.     A  boom  so  secured  that  it  guides  floating  logs  in  the  desired 

direction.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:  fender  boom,  glancing  boom. 
Sheer  skid.     See  Fender  skid. 

Shoot  a  jam,  to.     To  loosen  a  log  jam  with  dynamite.     (Gen.) 
Shore  hold.     The  attachment  of  the  hawser  of  a  raft  of  logs  to  an  object  on 

the  shore.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Short  road.     See  Go-back  road. 

Shot  holes.     Holes  made  in  wood  by  boring  insects.     (App.) 
Side  jam.     A  jam  which  has  formed  on  one  side  of  a  stream,  usually  where 

the  logs  are  forced  to  the  shore  at  a  bend  by  the  current,  or  where  the 

water  is  shallow  or  there  are  partially  submerged  rocks.     (N.  F.) 
Side  mark.     See  Bark  mark. 
Side  winder.     A  tree  knocked  down  unexpectedly  by  the  faUing  of  another. 

(Gen.) 
Signal  man.     One  who  transmits  orders  from  the  foreman  of  a  yarding  crew 

to  the  engineer  of  the  yarding  donkey.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Single  out,  to.     To  float  logs,  usually  cypress,  one  at  a  time,  from  the  woods 

to  the  float  road.     (S.  F.) 
Sinker,  u.     See  Deadhead. 
Sinker  boat.     See  Catamaran. 
Skid,  V.     I.  To  draw  logs  from  the  stump  to  the  skidway,  landing  or  mill. 

(Gen.) 

Syn.:  snake,  twitch. 


502  APPENDIX 

2.   As  applied  to  a  road,  to  reinforce  by  placing  logs  or  poles  across  it. 

(Gen.) 
Skid,  n.     A  log  or  pole,  commonly  used  in  pairs,  upon  which  logs  are 

handled  or  piled  (Gen.);    or  the  log  or  pole  laid  transversely  in  a  skid 

road  (P.  C.  F.). 
Skidder,  n.     i.    One  who  skids  logs.     (Gen.) 

2.  A  steam  engine,  usually  operating  from  a  railroad  track,  which  skids 
logs  by  means  of  a  cable.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  steam  skidder. 

3.  The  foreman  of  a  crew  which  constructs  skid  roads.     (P,  C.  F.) 

4.  See  Bummer. 

Skidding  chain.     A  heavy  chain  used  in  skidding  logs.     (Gen.) 

Skidding  hooks.     See  Skidding  tongs. 

Skidding  sled.     See  Dray. 

Skidding  tongs.     A  pair  of  hooks  attached  by  links  to  a  ring  and  used  for 

skidding  logs.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  grips,  grapples,  grabs,  skidding  hooks. 
Skidding  trail.     See  Gutter  road. 
Skid  grease.     A  heavy  oil  applied  to  skids  to  lessen  the  friction  of  logs 

dragged  over  them.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Skid  road.     i.  A  road  or  trail  leading  from  the  stump  to  the  skidway  or 

landing.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  travois  road.     (N.  F.) 

2.   A  road  over  which  logs  are  dragged,  having  heavy  transverse  skids 

partially  sunk    in  the  ground,  usually  at    intervals    of    about    5    feet. 

(P.C.F.) 
Skid  up,  to.     I.   To  level  or  reinforce  a  logging  road  by  the  use  of  skids. 

(Gen.) 
2.   To  collect  logs  and  pile  them  on  a  skidway.     (Gen.) 
Skidway,  n.     Two  skids  laid  parallel  at  right  angles  to  a  road,  usually  raised 

above  the  ground  at  the  end  nearest  the  road.     Logs  are  usually  piled 

upon  a  skidway  as  they  are  brought  from  the  stump  for  loading  upon 

sleds,  wagons  or  cars.     (Gen.) 
Skidway,  to  break  a.     To  roll  piled  logs  off  a  skidway.     (Gen.) 
Sky  hooker.     See  Top  loader. 
Slack  water.     In  river  driving,  the  temporary  slackening  of  the  current 

caused  by  the  formation  of  a  jam.     (Gen.) 
Slant  dam.     See  Rafter  dam. 

Slash,  ».     I.    The  debris  left  after  logging,  wind  or  fire.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  slashing. 
2.   Forest  land  which  has  been  logged  off  and  upon  which  the  limbs  and 

tops  remain,  or  which  is  deep  in  debris  as  the  result  of  fire  or  wind. 

(Gen.) 
Slashing,  n.    See  Slash. 


APPENDIX  503 

Sled  tender,     i.   One  who  assists  in  loading  and  unloading  logs  or  skidding 

with  dray.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  chain  tender. 
2.   A  member  of  the  hauling  crew  who  accompanies  the  turn  of  logs  to 

the  landing,  unhooks  the  grabs,  and  sees  that  they  are  returned  to  the 

yarding  engine.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Slide,  n.     A  trough  built  of  logs  or  timber,  used  to  transport  logs  down  a 

slope.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  chute,  dry  shde,  slip. 
Slide  tender.     One  who  keeps  a  slide  in  repair.     (Gen.) 
Slip,  n.     I.   See  Slide. 
2.   See  Gangway. 
Slip  grab.     A  pear-shaped  hnk  attached  by  a  swivel  to  a  skidding  evener  or 

whifSetree,  through  which  the  skidding  chain  is  passed.     The  chain  runs 

freely  when  the  slip  grab  is  held  sideways,  but  catches  when  the  grab  is 

straight.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :  grab  link. 
Slipper,  H.     See  Rosser. 
Slip  skids.     Sec  Glisse  skids. 
Sloop,  n.     See  Dray. 
Sloop  logs,  to.     To  haul  logs  down  steep  slopes  on  a  dray  or  sloop  equipped 

with  a  tongue.     (N.  F.) 
Slough  pig.     Usually  a  second-rate  river  driver  who  is  assigned  to  picking 

logs  out  of  sloughs  in  advance  of  the  rear.     (N.  F.) 
Sluice,  V.     I.   See  Flume. 

2.  To  float  logs  through  the  sluiceway  of  a  splash  dam.     (N.  F.) 

3.  See  Splash. 
Sluice,  ;/.     See  Flume. 

Sluice  gate.     The  gate  closing  a  sluiceway  in  a  splash  dam.     (Gen.) 
Sluiceway,  n.     The  opening  in  a  splash  dam  through  which  logs  pass. 

(Gen.) 
Snake,  v.     See  Skid. 
Snaking  trail.     Sec  Gutter  road. 
Snatch  team.     See  Tow  team. 
Snib,  V.     In  river  driving,  to  be  carried  away  purposely,  but  ostensibly  by 

accident,  on  the  first  portion  of  a  jam  that  moves;   to  ride  away  from  work 

under  guise  of  being  accidently  carried  off.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Snipe,  V.     See  Nose. 

Sniper,  n.     One  who  noses  logs  before  they  are  skidded.     (Gen.) 
Snow  a  road,  to.      To  cover  bare  spots  in  a  logging  road  with  snow  to 

facilitate  the  passage  of  sleds.     (N.  F.) 
Snow  slide.     A  temporary  slide  on  a  steep  slope,  made  by  dragging  a  large 

log  through  deep  snow  which  is  soft  or  thawing;    when  frozen  solidly,  it 

may  be  used  to  shde  logs  to  a  point  where  they  can  be  reached  by  sleds. 

(N.  W.) 


504  APPENDIX 

Snub,  V.     To  check,  usually  by  means  of  a  snub  Hne,  the  speed  of  logging 

sleds  or  logs  on  steep  slopes,  or  of  a  log  raft.     (Gen.) 
Softwood,  a.     As  applied  to  trees  and  logs,  needle-leafed,  coniferous.    (Gen.) 
Softwood,  ;/.     A  needle-leafed,  or  coniferous,  tree.     (Gen.) 
Solid  jam.     i.   In  river  driving,  a  jam  formed  solidly  and  extending  from 

bank  to  bank  of  a  stream.     (N.  F.) 

2.   A  drive  is  said  to  be  "  in  a  solid  jam  "  when  the  stream  is  full  of  logs 

from  the  point  to  which  the  rear  is  cleared  to  the  mill,  sorting  jack  or 

storage  boom.     (N.  F.) 
Sorting  boom.     A  strong  boom  used  to  guide  logs  into  the  sorting  jack,  to 

both  sides  of  which  it  is  usually  attached.     (Gen.) 
Sorting  gap.     See  Sorting  jack. 
Sorting  jack.     A  raft,  secured  in  a  stream,  through  an  opening  in  which  logs 

pass  to  be  sorted  by  their  marks  and  diverted  into  pocket  booms  or  the 

downstream  channel.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  sorting  gap. 
Spanish   windlass.     A  device   for  moving  heavy  objects   in  logging.     It 

consists  of  a  rope  or  chain,  within  a  turn  of  which  a  lever  is  inserted  and 

power  gained  by  twisting.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  twister. 
Spiked  skid.     A  skid  in  which  spikes  are  inserted  in  order  to  keep  logs  from 

sliding  back  when  being  loaded  or  piled.     (Gen.) 
Splash,  V.     To  drive  logs  by  releasing  a  head  of  water  confined  by  a  splash 

dam.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  flood,  sluice. 
Splash  boards.     Boards  placed  temporarily  on  top  of  a  rolling  dam  to 

heighten  the  dam,  and  thus  to  increase  the  head  of  water  available  for 

river  driving.     (X.  F.) 
Splash  dam.     A  dam  built   to  store  a   head  of  water  for   driving  logs. 

(Gen.) 
Syn.:  flood  dam.     (Gen.) 
Split  roof.     A  roof  of  a  logging  camp  or  barn  made  by  laying  strips  spht 

from  straight-grained  timber.     The  strips  run  from  the  ridge  pole  to  the 

eaves,  and  break  the  joints  with  other  strips,  as  in  a  shingle  roof.     (N.  F.) 
Spool  donkey.     A  donkey  engine  for  winding  cable,  equipped  with  a  spool 

or  capstan,  instead  of  a  drum.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Spool  tender.     One  who  guides  the  cable  on  a  spool  donkey.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Spot,  V.     See  Blaze. 
Spring  board.     A  short  board,  shod  at  one  end  with  an  iron  calk,  which  is 

inserted  in  a  notch  cut  in  a  tree,  on  which  the  fafler  stands  whfle  feUing  the 

tree.     (P.  C.  F.,  S.  F.) 
Spring  pole.     i.    A  springy  pole  attached  to  the  tongue  of  a  logging  sled 

and  passing  over  the  roll  and  under  the  beam,  for  holding  the  weight  of 

the  tongue  off  the  horses'  necks.     (N.  F.) 


APPENDIX  505 

2.   A  device  for  steadying  a  crosscut  saw,  so  that  one  man  can  use  it 
instead  of  two.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Sprinkler,  11.  A  large  wooden  tank  from  which  water  is  sprinkled  over 
logging  roads  during  freezing  weather  in  order  to  ice  the  surface.  (N.  W., 
L.  S.) 

Syn.:  tank. 

Sprinkler  sleds.  The  sleds  upon  which  the  sprinkler  is  mounted.  They 
consist  of  two  sleds  whose  runners  turn  up  at  each  end,  fastened  together 
by  cross  chains,  and  each  having  a  pole,  in  order  that  the  sprinkler  may 
be  hauled  in  either  direction  without  turning  around.     (N.  F.) 

Spud,  n.     A  tool  for  removing  bark.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  barking  iron. 

Spudder,  n.     See  Barker. 

Stag,  V.  To  cut  off  trousers  at  the  knee,  or  boots  at  the  ankle.  (N.  F., 
P.  C.  F.) 

Standard,  )i.     See  Market. 

Starting  bar.     See  Gee  throw. 

Stay  boom.  A  boom  fastened  to  a  main  boom  and  attached  upstream  to 
the  shore  to  give  added  strength  to  the  main  boom.     (Gen.) 

Steam  hauler.  A  geared  locomotive  used  to  haul  loaded  logging  sleds  over 
an  ice  road.  It  is  equipped  with  a  spiked  metal  belt  which  runs  over 
sprocket  wheels  replacing  the  driving  wheels,  and  is  guided  by  a  sled, 
turned  by  a  steering  wheel,  upon  which  the  front  end  rests.     (N.  F.) 

Steam  jammer.     See  Steam  loader. 

Steam  loader.  A  machine  operated  by  steam  and  used  for  loading  logs 
upon  cars.     (Gen.) 

Syn. :  loader,  steam  jammer. 

Steam  skidder.     See  Skidder. 

Stem  winder.     Sec  Corkscrew. 

Stillwater.     That  part  of  a  stream  having  such  slight  fall  that  no  current 
is  apparent.     Ant.:  quickwater.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  deadwater. 

Stock  logs,  to.     To  deliver  logs  from  stump  to  mill  or  railroad.     (S.  F.) 

Storage  boom.  A  strong  boom  used  to  hold  logs  in  storage  at  a  sawmill. 
(Gen.) 

Syn. :  holding  boom,  receiving  boom. 

Straw  boss,  n.     A  subforeman  in  a  logging  camp.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Syn.:  head  push. 

Stream  jam.     See  Center  jam. 

Stringer  road.     See  Fore-and-aft  road. 

Stumpage,  n.  The  value  of  timber  as  it  stands  uncut  in  the  woods;  or,  in 
a  general  sense,  the  standing  timber  itself.     (Gen.) 

Swamp,  V.  To  clear  the  ground  of  underbrush,  fallen  trees  and  other  ob- 
structions preparatory  to  constructing  a  logging  road  or  opening  out  a 
gutter  road.     (Gen.) 


5o6  APPENDIX 

Swamper,  n.     One  who  swamps.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  beaver,  gutterman.     (N.  F.) 
Swamp  hook.     A  large,  single  hook  on  the  end  of  a  chain,  used  in  handling 

logs,  most  commonly  in  skidding.     (Gen.) 
Sway  bar.     i.   A  strong  bar  or  pole,  two  of  which  couple  and  hold  in  posi- 
tion the  front  and  rear  sleds  of  a  logging  sled.     (N.  F.) 
2.   The  bar  used  to  couple  two  logging  cars.     (Gen.) 
Swell  butted.     As  applied  to  a  tree,  greatly  enlarged  at  the  base.     (Gen.) 

Syn.:  bottle  butted,  churn  butted. 
Swing,  V.     See  Gun. 

Swing  dingle.  A  single  sled  with  wood-shod  runners  and  a  tongue  with 
lateral  play,  used  in  hauling  logs  down  steep  slopes  on  bare  ground. 
(N.  F.) 

Syn.:  loose-tongued  sloop. 
Swing  team.     In  a  logging  team  of  six,  the  pair  between  the  leaders  and  the 
butt  team.     (P.  C.  F.) 

Tail  chain.     A  heavy  chain  bound  around  the  trailing  end  of  logs,  as  a  brake, 

in  slooping  on  steep  slopes.     (N.  W.) 
Taildown,  to.     To  roll  logs  on  a  skidway  to  a  point  on  the  skids  where  they 

can  be  quickly  reached  by  the  loading  crew.     (N.  F.) 
Tail  hold.     i.   A  means  of  obtaining  increased  power  in  moving  a  log  by 

tackle.     The  cable  is  passed  through  a  block  attached  to  the  log  and  the 

end  fastened  to  a  stationary  object,  so  that  hauHng  on  the  other  end  gives 

twice  the  power  which  would  be  attained  by  direct  attachment  of  the 

cable  to  the  log.     (P.  C.  F.) 

2.   The  attachment  of  the  rear  end  of  a  donkey  sled,  usually  to  a  tree 

or  stump.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Tail  hook.     Sec  Dog. 
Tally  board.     A  thin,  smooth  board  used  by  a  scaler  to  record  the  number 

or  volume  of  logs.     (Gen.) 
Tally  man.     One  who  records  or  tallies  the  measurements  of  logs  as  they 

are  called  by  the  scaler.     (N.  F.) 
Tank,  n.     See  Sprinkler. 
Tank  conductor.     One  who  has  charge  of  the  crew  which  operates  a  sprinkler 

or  tank,  and  who  regulates  the  flow  of  water,  in  icing  logging  roads. 

(N.  F.) 
Tank  heater.     A  sheet-iron  cylinder  extending  through  a  tank  or  sprinkler, 

in  which  a  fire  is  kept  to  prevent  the  water  in  the  tank  from  freezing  while 

icing  logging  roads  in  extremely  cold  weather.     (N.  F.) 
Tanking.     The  act  of  hauling  water  in  a  tank,  to  ice  a  logging  road.     (N.  F.) 
Tee,  n.     A  strip  of  iron  about  6  inches  long  with  a  hole  in  the  center,  to 

which  a  short  chain  is  attached;    it  is  passed  through  a  hole  in  a  gate 

plank,  turned  crosswise,  and  so  used  to  hold  the  plank  when  tripped  in 

a  splash  dam.     (N.  W.) 


APPENDIX  507 

Throw,  V.     See  Wedge  a  tree,  to. 

Throw  line.     See  Trip  line. 

Throw  out.     See  Frog. 

Tide,  n.     A  freshet.     In  the  Appalachian  region  logs  are  rolled  into  a  stream 

and  a  "  tide  "  awaited  to  carry  them  to  the  boom.     (App.) 
Timber  wheels.     See  Logging  wheels. 
Toe  ring.     The  heavy  ring  or  ferrule  on  the  end  of  a  cant  hook.     It  has  a 

lip  on  the  lower  edge  to  prevent  slipping  when  a  log  is  grasped.     (Gen.) 
Toggle  chain.     A  short  chain  with  a  ring  at  one  end  and  a  toggle  hook  and 

ring  at  the  other,  fastened  to  the  sway  bar  or  bunk  of  a  logging  sled,  and 

used  to  regulate  the  length  of  a  binding  chain.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :  bunk  chain. 
Toggle  hook.     A  grab  hook  with  a  long  shank,  used  on  a  toggle  chain. 

(N.  F.) 
Tonging,  v.     Handling  logs  with  skidding  tongs.     (N.  F.) 
Top  chains.     Chains  used  to  secure  the  upper  tiers  of  a  load  of  logs  after  the 

capacity  of  the  regular  binding  chains  has  been  filled.     (Gen.) 
Top  load.     A  load  of  logs  piled  more  than  one  tier  high,  as  distinguished 

from  a  bunk  load.     (Gen.) 
Top  loader.     That  member  of  a  loading  crew  who  stands  on  the  top  of  a  load 

and  places  logs  as  they  are  sent  up.     (Gen.) 
Syn. :  sky  hooker.     (N.  F.) 
Tote,  V.     To  haul  supplies  to  a  logging  camp.     (N.  F.) 
Tote  road.     A  road  used  for  hauling  supphes  to  a  logging  camp.     (N.  F.) 

Syn.:  hay  road. 
Tote  sled.     See  Jumper. 
Tow  team.     An  extra  team  stationed  at  an  incline  in  a  logging  road  to  assist 

the  regular  teams  in  ascending  with  loaded  sleds.     (N.  F.) 
Syn.:  snatch  team. 
Trailers,  n.     Several  logging  sleds  hitched  behind  one  another  and  pulled 

by  from  4  to  8  horses  driven  by  one  man,  thus  saving  teamster's  wages. 

(N.  F.) 
Tram,  ».     See  Tramway. 
Tramway,  n.    A  light  or  temporary  railroad  for  the  transportation  of  logs, 

often  with  wooden  rails  and  operated  by  horse  power.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  tram. 
Travois,  «.     See  Dray. 
Travois  road.     See  Skid  road. 
Trip,  V.     See  Wedge  a  tree,  to. 
Trip,  II.     See  Turn. 

Trip  a  dam,  to.     To  remove  the  plank  which  closes  a  splash  dam.     (N.  F.) 
Trip  line.     i.   A  light  rope  attached  to  a  dog  hook,  used  to  free  the  latter 
-when  employed  in  breaking  a  jam,  a  skidway  or  a  load.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :  throw  line. 
3.   See  Haul  back. 


5o8  APPENDIX 

Tripsin,   n.     A   timber  placed   across   the  bottom  of  the  sluiceway  in  a 

splash  dam,  against  which  rest  the  planks  by  which  the  dam  is  closed. 

(Gen.) 
Trough  roof.     A  roof  on  a  logging  camp  or  barn,  made  of  small  logs  split 

lengthwise,  hollowed  into  troughs  and  laid  from  ridge  pole  to  eaves.     The 

joints  of  the  lower  tier  are  covered  by  inverted  troughs.     (N.  F.) 
Turkey,  n.     A  bag  containing  a  lumberjack's  outfit.     To  "  histe  the  turkey" 

is  to  take  one's  personal  belongings  and  leave  camp.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Turn,  n.     i.   A  single  trip  and  return  made  by  one  team  in  hauling  logs; 

e.g.,  a  four-turn  road  is  a  road  the  length  of  which  will  permit  of  only  four 

round  trips  per  day.     (N.  F.) 
Syn. :  trip.     (Gen.) 

2.    Two  or  more  logs  coupled  together  end  to  end  for  hauling.     (P.C.F.) 
Turnout,  n.     A  short  side  road  from  a  logging-sled  road,  to  allow  loaded 

sleds  to  pass.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Twin  sleds.     Sec  Logging  sled. 
Twister,  ;/.     See  Spanish  windlass. 
Twitch,  V.     See  Skid. 
Two  sleds.     See  Logging  sled. 

Undercut,  v.     See  Notch. 

Undercut,  n.     The  notch  cut  in  a  tree  to  determine  the  direction  in  which 

the  tree  is  to  fall,  and  to  prevent  splitting.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  notch  (Gen.),  nick  (S.  F.). 
Undercutter,  n.     A  skilled  woodsman  who  chops  the  undercut  in  trees  so 

that  they  shall  fall  in  the  proper  direction.     (Gen.) 
Union  drive.     A  drive  of  logs  belonging  to  several  owners,  who  share  the 

expense  pro  rata.     (N.  F.) 
Upright  roller.     A  flanged  roller  placed  upright  at  a  bend  in  a  skid  road  to 

direct  the  cable.     (P.  C.  F.) 
Syn.:  roller,  dolly. 

Value,  V.     See  Cruise. 
Valuer,  n.     See  Cruiser. 

Van,  n.     The  small  store  in  a  logging  camp  in  which  clothing,  tobacco  and 
medicine  are  kept  to  supply  the  crew.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.)     See  Commissary. 

Wagon  sled.     Sec  Logging  sled. 

Wanigan,  n.     A  houseboat  used  as  sleeping  quarters  or  as  kitchen  and 

dining  room  by  river  drivers.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Syn.:  ark  (N.  F.),  shanty  boat  (S.  F.). 
Water  ladder.     Pole  guides  up  and  down  which  a  barrel  shdes  in  filling  a 

sprinkler  by  horse  power.     (N.  W.,  L.  S.) 
Water  slide.     See  Flume. 


APPENDIX  509 

Wedge  a  tree,  to.     To  topple  over  with  wedges  a  tree  that  is  being  felled. 

(Gen.) 
Syn.:  throw,  trip. 
Wet  slide.     See  Flume. 
Whiflletree  neckyoke.     X  heavy  logging  neckyoke,  to  the  ends  of  which 

short  whiffletrees  are  attached  by  rings.     From  the  ends  of  the  whiffletrees 

wide  straps  run  to  the  breeching,  thus  giving  the  team  added  power  in 

holding  back  loads  on  steep  slopes.     (N.  F.) 
White  water  man.     A  log  driver  who  is  expert  in  breaking  jams  on  rapids  or 

falls.     (N.  F.) 
Widow  maker.     A  broken  limb  hanging  loose  in  the  top  of  a  tree,  which  in 

its  fall  may  injure  a  man  below  (N.  F.),  or  a  breaking  cable  (P.  C.  F.) 
Wigwam,  to  make  a.     In  felHng  trees,  to  lodge  several  in  such  a  way  that 

they  support  each  other.     (N.  F.) 
Windfall,  ;/.     An  area  upon  which  the  trees  have  been  thrown  by  wind; 

also,  a  single  tree  thrown  by  wind.     (Gen.) 
Syn.:  blow  down,  wind  slash.     (N.  F.) 
Windshake,  ii.     See  Shake. 
Wind  slash.     See  Windfall. 
Wing  dam.     See  Pier  dam. 
Wing  jam.     A  jam  which  is  formed  against  an  obstacle  in  the  stream  and 

slants  upstream  until  the  upper  end  rests  solidly  against  one  shore,  with 

an  open  channel  for  the  passage  of  logs  on  the  opposite  side.     (N.  F.) 
Woodpecker,  ».     A  poor  chopper.     (Gen.) 
Wrapper  chain.     See  Binding  chain. 

Yard,  ;:.     See  Landing. 

Yarding  donkey.     A  donkey  engine  mounted  upon  a  heavy  sled,  used  in 
yarding  logs  by  drum  and  cable.     (P.  C.  F.) 


LOG   RULES   AND    TABLES    OF 
CUBIC   CONTENTS 


TABLE    I.  — CLARK'S   LNTERNATIONAL  LOG  RULRi 


e 

Length  in  feet. 

h 

i.s 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

s" 

Contents  in  board  feet  .2 

6 

10 

IC 

IC 

15 

15 

15 

20 

20 

20 

25 

25 

30 

30 

7 

15 

15 

15 

2C 

20 

25 

25 

30 

30 

35 

35 

40 

45 

8 

20 

2C 

25 

25 

30 

35 

35 

40 

45 

45 

50 

55 

60 

9 

25 

3C 

3C 

35 

40 

45 

50 

50 

55 

60 

6S 

70 

75 

lO 

30 

35 

4C 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

85 

90 

95 

II 

40 

45 

5c 

55 

65 

70 

75 

80 

90 

95 

105 

no 

"5 

12 

50 

55 

65 

70 

75 

85 

90 

100 

105 

"5 

125 

130 

140 

13 

60 

65 

75 

85 

90 

100 

no 

120 

130 

140 

145 

155 

16s 

14 

70 

80 

9C 

100 

no 

120 

130 

140 

150 

160 

175 

185 

195 

IS 

80 

90 

105 

"5 

125 

140 

150 

160 

175 

185 

200 

215 

22s 

i6 

95 

105 

120 

130 

145 

160 

170 

i8s 

200 

215 

230 

245 

260 

17 

105 

120 

135 

150 

165 

180 

195 

210 

225 

245 

260 

275 

295 

i8 

120 

135 

155 

170 

185 

205 

220 

240 

255 

27s 

295 

310 

330 

19 

135 

155 

175 

190 

210 

230 

250 

270 

290 

310 

330 

350 

370 

20 

150 

170 

195 

215 

235 

255 

275 

300 

320 

345 

36s 

390 

410 

21 

170 

190 

215 

235 

260 

285 

305 

330 

355 

380 

405 

430 

455 

22  |i85 

210 

235 

260 

28s 

315 

340 

365 

390 

420 

445 

475 

500 

23 

205 

230 

260 

28s 

315 

345 

370 

400 

430 

460 

490 

520 

550 

24 

225 

255 

285 

315 

345 

375 

405 

440 

470 

500 

535 

565 

600 

25 

245 

275 

310 

345 

375 

410 

445 

475 

510 

545 

580 

615 

650 

26 

265 

300 

335 

370 

405 

445 

480 

520 

555 

595 

630 

670 

705 

27 

290 

325 

365 

405 

440 

480 

520 

560 

600 

640 

680 

725 

765 

28 

310 

350 

395 

435 

475 

520 

560 

60s 

645 

690 

735 

780 

825 

29 

335 

380 

425 

470 

510 

560 

60s 

650 

695 

740 

790 

835 

885 

3° 

360 

405 

455 

500 

550 

600 

645 

695 

745 

795 

845 

895 

950 

31 

38s 

435 

4S5 

540 

590 

640 

695 

745 

800 

850 

90s 

960 

lois 

32 

410 

465 

520 

575 

630 

68s 

740 

795 

850 

910 

965 

I02S 

1080 

33 

440 

495 

555 

610 

670 

730 

790 

850 

905 

970 

1030 

1090 

1150 

34 

470 

530 

590 

650 

715 

775 

840 

900 

965 

1030 

1095 

II60 

I22S 

35 

495 

560 

62s 

690 

755 

82s 

890 

955 

I02S 

1095 

1 160 

1230 

1300 

36 

525 

595 

66  s 

735 

800 

875 

945 

1015 

io8s 

1 160 

1230 

1305 

1375 

37 

560 

630 

705 

775 

850 

925 

1000 

1075 

1150 

1225 

1300 

1380 

1445 

38 

590 

66s 

745 

820 

895 

975 

1055 

1135 

1210 

1295 

1375 

1455 

1535 

39 

520 

70s 

785 

86s 

945 

1030 

IIIO 

1195 

1280 

1365 

1450 

1535 

1620 

40 

555 

740 

82s 

910 

995 

io8s 

1 1 70 

1260 

1345 

1435 

1525 

161S 

1705 

41 

590 

780 

870 

960 

1050 

1 140 

1230 

1325 

1415 

1510 

160S 

1700 

1795 

42 

72s 

820 

915 

lOIO 

1 100 

1200 

1295 

1390 

1490 

1585 

i68s 

1785 

i88s 

43 

760 

860 

960 

1060 

"55 

1260 

1360 

1460 

1560 

166s 

1770 

1870 

1975 

44 

3oo 

900 

1005 

IIIO 

1215 

1320 

1425 

1530 

1635 

1745 

1855 

i960 

2070 

45 

l^^ 

945 

1055 

II60 

1270 

1380 

1490 

1600 

1715 

182s 

1940 

20S0 

2165 

46 

375 

990 

1 100 

I2I5 

1330 

1445 

1560 

1675 

1790 

1910 

2030 

2145 

226s  . 

47 

315 

1035 

1150 

1270 

1390 

1510 

1630 

1750 

1870 

1995 

2120 

2240 

2365 

48 

?55 

1080 

1 20s 

1325 

1450 

IS7S 

1700 

1830 

1955 

208s 

2210 

2340 

2470 

1  By  permission  of  Judson  F.  Clark. 

2  The  contents  are  for  logs  sawed  on  a  band  saw  cutting  |-inch  kerf.     Correction  factors  for  lumber 
cut  with  saws  removing  other  kerfs  are  given  on  p.  no. 

513 


514 


APPENDIX 


TABLE   II.  —  SCRIBNER   DECIMAL    "C"   LOG  RULEi 
FOR  LOGS  UP  TO  AND  INCLUDING  32  FEET  IN  LENGTH 


Diameter 
in  inches. 


Length  in  feet. 


10        12        14        16        18 


22        24        26        28        30        32 


Contents  in  board  feet. 


6 

7 
8 

9 
10 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 

19 
20 

21 

22 

23 
24 

25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 


o-S 

0.5 

I 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

0.5 

I 

I 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

6 

I 

2 

3 

4 

4 

4 

5 

0 

6 

7 

8 

' 

3 

3 

3 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

9 

10 

II 

2 

3 

4 

4 

5 

7 

8 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

0 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14 

15 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

10 

II 

12 

13 

15 

16 

17 

18 

4 

6 

7 

9 

10 

II 

13 

14 

16 

17 

19 

20 

21 

5 

7 

Q 

II 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

21 

23 

25 

27 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

7 

9 

12 

14 

16 

18 

21 

23 

25 

28 

30 

32 

35 

8 

II 

13 

16 

19 

21 

24 

27 

29 

32 

35 

37 

40 

0 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

33 

3f 

39 

42 

45 

II 

14 

17 

21 

24 

28 

31 

35 

38 

42 

45 

49 

5- 

12 

15 

19 

23 

27 

30 

34 

38 

42 

46 

49 

53 

57 

13 

17 

21 

25 

29 

33 

3« 

42 

46 

50 

54 

58 

b3 

14 

10 

23 

28 

33 

38 

42 

47 

52 

57 

61 

66 

71 

15 

21 

25 

30 

3  5 

40 

45 

50 

55 

61 

66 

71 

76 

2,S 

2Q 

34 

40 

46 

52 

57 

63 

69 

75 

80 

86 

IQ 

25 

31 

37 

44 

50 

56 

62 

69 

75 

82 

88 

94 

21 

27 

34 

41 

48 

55 

62 

68 

75 

82 

89 

96 

103 

22 

2Q 

36 

44 

51 

5« 

65 

73 

80 

87 

95 

102 

109 

23 

31 

3« 

46 

53 

61 

68 

76 

84 

Qi 

99 

107 

114 

25 

33 

41 

49 

57 

66 

74 

82 

90 

99 

107 

"5 

123 

27 

36 

44 

53 

62 

71 

80 

89 

q8 

106 

IIS 

124 

133 

28 

^7 

46 

55 

64 

74 

S3 

92 

lOI 

no 

120 

129 

138 

20 

3Q 

49 

59 

69 

7« 

88 

98 

108 

118 

127 

137 

147 

SO 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

QO 

100 

no 

120 

130 

140 

150 

33 

44 

55 

66 

77 

88 

98 

109 

120 

131 

142 

153 

164 

35 

46 

5« 

69 

81 

92 

104 

115 

127 

138 

150 

161 

173 

30 

51 

64 

77 

90 

lO.S 

116 

129 

142 

154 

107 

180 

193 

40 

54 

67 

80 

93 

107 

120 

133 

147 

160 

174 

187 

200 

42 

56 

70 

84 

08 

112 

126 

140 

154 

168 

182 

196 

210 

45 

60 

75 

90 

los 

120 

135 

150 

166 

181 

196 

211 

22b 

48 

64 

79 

95 

III 

127 

143 

159 

175 

191 

207 

223 

238 

50 

67 

84 

lOI 

117 

134 

151 

168 

185 

201 

218 

235 

252 

52 

70 

87 

105 

122 

140 

157 

174 

192 

209 

227 

244 

262 

56 

74 

93 

III 

129 

148 

166 

185 

204 

222 

241 

259 

278 

57 

76 

95 

114 

133 

152 

171 

190 

209 

228 

247 

266 

286 

I  Taken  from  the  National  Forest  Manual,  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


APPENDIX 


515 


TABLE   II. 


Continued.     SCRIBNER   DECIMAL 
RULE 


'C"    LOG 


Diameter 
in  inches. 


Length  in  feet. 


10         12         14         16         l8         20        22         24        26        28         30        32 


Contents  in  board  feet. 


,so 

79 

09 

IIQ 

1,^9 

159 

178 

198 

218 

238 

2,S8 

278 

207 

62 

«3 

104 

124 

145 

Ibb 

i8b 

207 

228 

248 

2b9 

290 

310 

65 

8b 

108 

130 

151 

173 

194 

2lb 

238 

260 

281 

302 

324 

07 

90 

112 

135 

157 

180 

202 

225 

247 

270 

292 

314 

337 

70 

94 

117 

140 

ib4 

187 

211 

234 

257 

281 

304 

328 

351 

73 

97 

122 

146 

170 

195 

219 

243 

268 

292 

315 

341 

,365 

7b 

lOI 

127 

152 

177 

202 

228 

2,53 

278 

304 

329 

3,54 

380 

79 

lo.S 

132 

i5« 

184 

210 

237 

263 

289 

319 

341 

398 

.395 

82 

109 

137 

ib4 

191 

218 

246 

273 

300 

328 

355 

382 

410 

«.S 

113 

142 

170 

198 

227 

255 

283 

312 

340 

398 

397 

42.S 

88 

118 

147 

176 

20b 

235 

2b4 

294 

323 

353 

382 

411 

441 

91 

122 

152 

183 

213 

244 

274 

304 

335 

365 

396 

42b 

457 

95 

I  2b 

i5« 

i8q 

221 

252 

284 

315 

347 

379 

410 

442 

473 

98 

131 

ib3 

190 

229 

2bl 

294 

327 

359 

392 

425 

457 

490 

lOI 

135 

ib9 

203 

237 

270 

304 

338 

372 

40b 

439 

473 

507 

105 

140 

175 

210 

245 

280 

315 

350 

.385 

420 

455 

490 

525 

108 

I4,S 

181 

217 

253 

289 

325 

3b2 

398 

434 

470 

50b 

542 

112 

149 

187 

224 

2bl 

299 

336 

373 

411 

448 

48.S 

523 

5bo 

lib 

I.S4 

193 

232 

270 

309 

348 

.387 

425 

464 

503 

541 

580 

119 

159 

199 

239 

279 

319 

358 

398 

438 

478 

518 

5.58 

.597 

123 

ib4 

20b 

247 

288 

329 

370 

412 

453 

494 

535 

579 

bi7 

127 

170 

212 

254 

297 

339 

381 

423 

46b 

508 

550 

593 

635 

131 

175 

219 

262 

30b 

350 

393 

437 

480 

524 

598 

bii 

655 

i3,S 

180 

226 

271 

316 

361 

40b 

452 

497 

,542 

,587 

632 

677 

139 

1 8b 

232 

279 

325 

372 

419 

465 

512 

558 

605 

651 

b98 

144 

192 

240 

287 

335 

383 

430 

478 

526 

574 

622 

670 

717 

148 

197 

247 

296 

345 

395 

444 

493 

543 

.592 

941 

b9i 

740 

1.52 

203 

254 

305 

356 

40b 

457 

508 

5,59 

610 

bbi 

712 

7b  2 

157 

209 

2bl 

314 

366 

418 

471 

523 

576 

b28 

b8o 

733 

785 

161 

215 

269 

323 

377 

430 

484 

538 

,592 

646 

700 

754 

807 

ibb 

221 

277 

,332 

.3«7 

443 

498 

5.53 

609 

664 

719 

775 

830 

171 

228 

285 

341 

398 

455 

5" 

568 

625 

b82 

739 

796 

852 

176 

234 

293 

351 

410 

468 

527 

585 

644 

702 

7bi 

819 

878 

180 

240 

301 

3b  I 

421 

481 

.541 

b02 

bbi 

722 

782 

842 

902 

185 

247 

309 

371 

432 

494 

556 

bi8 

680 

742 

804 

8bb 

927 

190 

2.=;4 

317 

.381 

444 

508 

572 

635 

699 

762 

826 

889 

953 

196 

2bl 

32b 

,391 

456 

521 

586 

652 

717 

782 

847 

912 

977 

201 

2b8 

335 

401 

4b8 

535 

boi 

bb8 

735 

802 

8b9 

936 

1002 

20b 

275 

343 

412 

481 

549 

bi8 

b87 

755 

824 

893 

961 

1030 

210 

281 

351 

421 

491 

561 

b3i 

702 

772 

842 

912 

982 

1052 

317 
331 
346 

359 
374 

389 
405 
421 
437 
453 
470 
487 
505 
523 
541 

560 
579 
597 
619 
637 
659 
677 
699 
723 
744 

76s 
789 
813 
837 
861 
885 
909 
936 
963 
989 

016 
043 
069 
099 

123 


5i6 


APPENDIX 


TABLE    11.  — Concluded. 


SCRIBNER   DECIMAL 
RULE 


LOG 


Diameter 
in  inches. 


Length  in  feet. 


6  8         10        12        14        16        18 


22        24        26 


Contents  in  board  feet. 


86 
87 
88 
89 
90 

91 
92 

93 
94 
95 
96 
97 
98 
99 
100 

lOI 

102 
103 
104 
los 
106 
107 
108 
109 
no 

III 

112 

"3 

114 

"5 
116 
117 
118 
119 
120 


2IS 

287 

359 

431 

503 

575 

646 

221 

29^ 

368 

442 

516 

589 

663 

226 

^01 

377 

452 

527 

603 

678 

2,SI 

308 

.385 

462 

,539 

616 

693 

236 

315 

393 

472 

551 

629 

708 

241 

322 

402 

483 

563 

644 

725 

246 

329 

411 

493 

575 

657 

739 

251 

335 

419 

503 

,587 

071 

754 

2S7 

343 

428 

514 

600 

685 

771 

262 

350 

437 

525 

612 

700 

788 

268 

357 

446 

536 

625 

715 

804 

273 

364 

455 

546 

637 

728 

819 

278 

371 

464 

557 

650 

743 

835 

284 

37Q 

473 

568 

663 

757 

852 

289 

3H6 

,482 

579 

675 

772 

869 

29.=; 

393 

492 

.590 

688 

787 

88s 

301 

401 

502 

602 

702 

803 

903 

307 

409 

512 

614 

71b 

819 

921 

^13 

417 

522 

62b 

7,SO 

835 

939 

310 

425 

532 

638 

744 

851 

957 

32.S 

433 

,542 

650 

7.58 

867 

975 

331 

442 

553 

663 

773 

884'  995 

337 

450 

5(53 

675 

788 

900  1013 

344 

45Q 

573 

688 

803 

917  1032 

350 

407 

5«3 

700 

817 

933 

1050 

356 

475 

594 

713 

832 

951 

1069 

S62 

483 

604 

725 

846 

967 

1087 

36Q 

492 

615 

738 

861 

984 

1 107 

37  S 

SOI 

626 

751 

876 

looi  11261 

,382 

509 

637 

764 

891 

1019  1146 

38Q 

510 

648 

778 

908 

1037  1167 

306 

528 

660 

792 

924 

1056  1188 

403 

537 

672 

806 

940 

1075  1209 

410 

547 

083 

820 

957 

1093  1230 

417 

556 

695 

834 

973 

1112 

1251, 

737 
753 
770 
787 

805 
822 
838 
857 
875 
893 
910 
928 
947 
965 

983 
1003 

23 
1043 
1063 
1083 


904 
922 
942 
963 
983 
1 001 
1021 
1041 
1062 

1082 
1104 
II 26 
1 148 
117c 
119; 


105  1216 

I25'l23? 

147:1261 
167 1283 


II»8 

1208 
1230 
1252 
1273 
1297 
1320 
1343 
1367 


1307 
1329 

1353 
1377 
I40I 

1426 

1452 
1478 
1503 


862 

934 

1006 

1077 

884 

958 

103 1 

1 105 

904 

979 

1055 

1130 

924 

lOOI 

1078 

"55 

944 

1023 

IIOI 

1 180 

966 

1047 

1127 

1208 

q86 

1068 

1 1  SO 

1232 

1006 

loqo 

1 1 74 

I2S7 

1028 

1114 

1 199 

1285 

1050 

1138 

1225 

1313 

1072 

1161 

1 23 1 

1340 

1092 

1183 

1274 

1365 

1114 

1207 

1300 

1392 

II,S6 

1 23 1 

1325 

1420 

II58 

1255 

1351 

1448 

I180 

1278 

1377 

1475 

1204 

1304 

1405 

1505 

1228 

1330 

1433 

1535 

1252 

1356 

146 1 

1565 

1276 

1382 

1489 

1,595 

1300 

1408 

1517 

1625 

1326 

1437 

1547 

i6s8 

1350 

1463 

1575 

1688 

1376 

149 1 

1605 

1720 

1400 

1517 

1633 

1750 

1426 

1545 

1664 

1782 

1450 

1 57 1 

1692 

1812 

1476 

1599 

1722 

1845 

1502 

1627 

1752 

1877 

IS28 

i6,S3 

1783 

1910 

15,56 

1686 

1813 

1945 

1584 

1716 

1848 

iq8o 

I6I2 

1746 

1881 

2015 

1640 

1777  1913 

2050 

1668 

1807 

1946 

2085 

1 149 
II79 
1205 
1232 
1259 

1288 
I3I5 
I34I 
I37I 

1400 

1429 

1456 
1485 
I5I5 
1544 

1573 
1605 
1637 
1669 

I70I 

1733 
1768 
1800 

1835 
1867 

I90I 

1933 
1968 

2003 

2037 


2149 

2187 

2224 


APPENDIX 


517 


0. 

00 

00 

1 
•s 

1 

13 
1 

HH    10  0  ^0    0    'tCO    04  0    0    "too    -NO    Orot-M    lOO^rOI^^    i^CO    ^'   O    O    ^X    MO 

sH13ia!;3Hrsalslss8i«!&?sl«slll 

Tt  r-  0    ro  t^  0    rOO    0    r^.O    O    ^    rO  O    O    ^  t-  O    <^.  O    O"   "  O    g    ^^  O    C>  04    rco    O-  in 
01    (N    roroco't^'+ioio  >^0  O  O    t^  t^  t-CO  OOCOOa-ONOOOwMMlNOiNrc 

<N    ri    M    r)-rocr>"^00    ^-^-^lOlOVOirjOOOO    t^t^r-t^OOCOCOCO    OO-OnOnQ    O 
-^  t^  0    roO    0  IN    lOOO    M    Tt  1-  0    fOO    0  IN    1^00    M    Tt  t^  0    ^0    O;  04    1000    M    ^CO    >- 
cs    OJ    rororOC^-*"*^«OlO  lOO  -O  O  O    t^  t^  t^OO  OOOOOOnOOnOOO'-i'-i"'^' 

?!  ^  f-  0    ro  LOCO    "    -to    OS  c.    .r,  t^  0    roo  OO    M    ^  t-  OMN    uoCO    "    r^o    O;   ^4    ^  t^.  O 
IN    IN    01    ^O^OCO^O^'*'t-t>J^lOlOOOOO    t^t^r-t^COCOCO    O  O--  O-  O'  O    O    O    « 

0>oOioOi^O»oO<oO'oO'voO>J->OtoOioO>oO'00<J^Ot"OV^O'00 
0    IN    lot^o    CI    lOi^O    ci    lot^o    c)    Loi^o    CI    uot^o    01    lot^O    CI    uot^o    in    mr^O 

Cl    CI    CI    CI    rocOt^cO't^'t-^iOUOLOiOOOOO    t^t^t^t^OOCOCOCO    0.0^00^0 

0    coo  00    M    CO  rOO    0.  COO    On  Cl    ro O    O.  m    c.  0  O  O    O-.  ci    uocO    ci  0    O"    "^    "J  f;;  O    ^ 
OOOciTt-t^ONMro  i^CO    0    Cl    10  t^  CT   "    -to  00    0    Cl    Tt-  t^  ON  "    -to  CO    "    co  IJ^OO    O 
w    Cl    Cl    Cl    Cl    Cl    rocO<r>cO"+Tt-TtTl-^iOXOiOiO'000  0  0    r-t^t^t^cocococo    On 

M    M    Cl    Cl    Cl    Cl    Cl    cococorocOTl-^'t^^ioioioir)  ir>0  OOOO    t^r-t^t^  t-00 

Tj-row    ONr-"1cOW    OM^lorOw    ONt--iOCOM    OcOO    ^Cl    OOOO    Ttci    OOOO    ^Cl 
1*000    OnM    trjiot^OO    0    Cl    rto    t^ON"    co^Or^OO    0    Cl    tJ-O    f^ONW    coioooo    0    <N 
Slf,^    S   Cl    ci'c<   cici    Sbcoroiy^coto-tTtTl-rt  Tj- ir>  IT)  vo  10  Lo  100  OOOO    t^  r- 

1 

CO    -^OO    cioo    -*00    cico    ^00    cico    -i-OO    cico    n-OO    c.  co    200    cico    TfO 

Cl    TfO    t^  On  0     Cl    rj-  10  t^OO     0     Cl     CO  100  00     0     ^     ^.  1-  0  CO     0    "     c,    rl-O    r--  Q-   O     <>'     ^ 
M    M    M    M    M    Cl    Cl    Cl    Cl    Cl    Cl    corOcOCOcoco-T-t-i-T|--t-t-Tt-iOiO.O>OlO  100  0  0 

1 

.5 

Cl    I-w    lOONrOt^"    loONr^t^O    ^  0-  r^.OO    "  0    O    ^  CO    ->  O    O    ThOO    ci  vO    O    ^00    Cl 
M    Cl    ^  .00  00    On  M    Cl    CO  100  00    On  0    c,    ro  ^O  CO    O-   O    Cl    ro  ur, 0    t--OOc.ro  -^nO 
M    M    M    11    M    M    1-1    Cl    Cl    Cl    Cl    Cl    Cl    Cl    oocorocOcococOT)--*'t-*^'t^<OVO»OlOlO 

"^MMMMHHMMciciMNClclclclcocorocorriroroi^rt^rl-Tr-trl-i*^ 

no" 

Tl-  lONO  0    t^  t^CO  COONOOwMClcicocOTtiO  100  0    t^  t^CO    OnOnOOwmOici 

1 

.2 
Q 

^^  g^'S  ^^  ^^^0  ^5^^^^  ^55^0  S-S:s  |~o  S5gi;^t 

X 

W     H     M     H 

nSS  jCcZ^Sn^^  ^?:^^5^^5  s^^^^::  ^1  5 ^ ||>o> s-cg ^ s; s 

MHMHMHI-ll-l                       M 

J" 

s>^5  ^  iCcZ  s  s;  8  ^ :;  2^  ^  ^  ^  5  a^^^  ^^  g§  s  8 1 M  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  g, 

n 

M     M     M     M                                         M 

T) 

^^ai^^o^  ^^css  3nSo|  m^  H  EH^^H-^E^H^S-^^^s^s^g 

1 

--    0    ^co    CIO    O^g    ^^^^^    Sn^8   ?=§    M^   S    ^^    --    0    500    CIO    0 

M     M     M     M                                     H 

^-5  ;^^^^^^^s>;;5^NSNS-N^a^^cg^g<g^SsS^o  ^^2  :?^  2^s 

(^ 

„     „              M      M     M     M     M 

CO    0    ro  lo  t^  On  CI    tJ-O  OO    H    COO  00    O    Cl    '^O    On  M    CO  lOOO    O    ci    ^  t^  On  m    ro  lOOO    O 
M    Cl    cici    Cl    Cl    ror^cocorfi^Tl-rtiOirn/^iO  lOO  O  O  O    t^  t^  t^  t^  t^cO  OO  OO  00    On 

Cl    ^O    r-  On  O    <N    CO  lO  t^oo    O    w    ro  tJ-O    t^  On  h    M    t1-  lO  t^OO    O    Cl    ro  ino  00    O-  w    Cl 
„    iS^M    M    MN    c    dcici    Cl    SScororOrorocOi=tTrt-^'=J-rtio-OioiOUOLO  woo  O 

=^=^2MM^^M'2M^2^sss^^^^s-'sg^?5;^?:!>;:?^;i?^^'^^^ 

UOMO    CIOO    roON'tOO    M    t-  COOO    ■*  On  lO  O  O    Cl  00    rooo    Tt  O    "^  M    t^  COOO    ■*  On  lO 

^  XT,  lOO  O   t-  t^OO    Ov'OnO    O    w    h    Cl    Cl    rO'*'+io  lOO  O    t^oO  OOOnOnOOwmm 

O    ro  lOOO    O    ro  l^OO    O    rO  lOOO    O    CO  wo  00    O    CO  WO  00    O    co  tOOO    O    CO  lOOO    O    CO  wo  00    O 

Cl    w    Cl    Cl    cocoroco-*,^Tj-Tt-woiowo  w^o  O  O  O    r-  t^  r-.  t--0O  OOOOOO    OnOnOnOnO 

1 

a 

•a, 

od  On  d  M  Cl'  ro  4  w^o  t-od  cJn  6  "  "■  r^J  4  woo  t-00  g^  o^ ;!  "  ^  3;  )r^'^  •;~:'^  o^  o 

MMMMMMMMMP-IOICICICIOCICICICICICOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOM- 

5i8 


APPENDIX 


cot^rot^fO^OfOfOr^ 


H    O    OOO    r^vO    lo  "*   ro  <N    M    O    OOO    t^vO    lO  tJ-  rO  <^l    M    O    0\X>  '         ■    -      -      -- 

t^OO    0^  On  O    w    cs    ro  -*  lOO    r^OO  CO    O  O 


rD  't  lO^O    t^  t^C 


O   t^OO   o  o 


CO    O  O    w    ^    "D  'i"  i^O   r^oo    O  O    M    o)    CO  -^  loo   r^co    0>  O    w    <n    to  -^  voo   t~-cO    O  O 
■*<N    M    ONt^lorOw    ONt^lOtOM    OOOO    Tt-O)    OOOvO    -^COH    O^t^lOcoi-l    O  l 
O    t^GO  OOONOt-ttNCNfO"^  V0\0    f^  r^OO    On  O    t-*  -     -- 


3NlOt-l      OnO      O      OnIOIN      On>00      t^Tl-HCO     lOM      t^Tt-MOO      tOOO      TflHNO      tOO^NO 

"COO    -*i-i    0>r-T)-N    O   t^iocoOooo    tOM    OnO    'i-^*    ONt^iotN    Ooo   vocoOoO' 
OO    t^OO    O^  O^  O    M    Ol    !0  to  ■*  loo  O    t^tXI    On  On  O    1-1    C-)    -■      -      ^ '    —    —    — 


loo  O    t^OO    On  On 


O  CO  lO  r^  On  M  coo  00  O  <N<  O  OO  O  "N  rfo  CO 
lo  tN  os^a  coMcoiocN)  ot^-'i'M  OnO  CO  O  t^ 
O   t^  r-oo    OnO    O    w    <n    (Oco-'^io  too   l^OO  00 


IN  lOO 
(N  OnO 
.  O     O     M 


CO  CO  ^  loo  o 


^  8n 


lOO  O   1:^00  CO    On  O    O 


LOO    t^  r^CO     On  On  O 


O    ^  CO  O  OO  o 

Tt-    M    00      lO    M    OO 

oj    CO  CO  "^  lO  lO' 


O    O    -*00 


I  00    lO   M  OO 


O   "^co 

N  OO     ^ 
On  On  O 


CO  CO  ■*  Tl- 


lOO  O    I^C 


tJ-  lO  lOO  O    t^  t^OO     On   On  O 


r^OO  00     On  On   O     W     M 


CO  CO  •*  '^  1 


t^  On  N    lO  r^  O    "N    lOOO    O 
t^  CM  00    cooo    rj-  On  ^  On  lO  O 
loO  O   r^  r^oo  00    On  On  O 


Tf  lO  loo  NO    t^  t^OO  00    On  On  O     O    *-* 


^  ^  CO  01    H    O 

O    M  O    1-     - 
-  r^oo  00    0>  O 


CO  ■*  rl-  lO  lO  lOO  o 


-co  00    OnOnO    O    O    m    w    <n    m    cocOTfTt-ioio  lOO  O   r^  t^oo 


CO  O  fNl  lO  t^  On  W  coo  00  M  CO  lO  t^  O  <N  'd-O  CO  O  <n) 
cooo  tso  O  T}*ONCOt^MO  O  -^00  CO  1^  w  lo  On  -^OO 
CO  CO  -^  ■*  lo  lO  lOO  O  t^  r^oo  OOOOOnOnOOOww 


On  CNl  tJ-O  On 
O  lO  On  CO  f^ 
CO  CO  CO  ^  Tf 


lO  lOO  O  O 


CO  ■*  mo    t^OO    On  O 


APPENDIX 


519 


•saqonr  m 


8^^ 

(v^ 

ro  ^  "OO 

^ 

JC 

5^^B-;^^<S  8^=5.2  8  ^S  S^JC^j;?^^^^ 

0  0 

0 

0000 

0    0 

" 

" 

H     M     M     <N     N 

(N    cs    roPOcOTj-TtTj-Loio  ir^vO  so  vO   t^  t^oo 

8^^ 

?; 

COTf  TfO 

^cg^ 

t 

?; 

^^S8^ 

t^  ro  0  J^vO  000  i-i  '1-00  "^rorO^r^-H 
Tf  t^  0  cs   tooo    w   Looo    ^)    I00s<0i--"io0 

0  0 

0 

0000 

0  0 

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«s    IN    <N    rororOTt-Tt-"*iOU-)  u-jO  O    r^  r^oo 

8^;? 

s 

M   0-  c^  0 

?lg 

0 

t~- 

^;;^?Ls:^ 

0  CO  00  rf  CO  CO  1000  iNr-cOMOOMCO 
COO  00    w    ^  r^  0    coo    0    coi-H   lOOscot^ 

0  0 

0 

0000 

0   0 

" 

« 

M     M     M     H     <N 

!N     C^     <N     COCOCO'^rJ-TflOVO  LOO  0  0    :^  t^ 

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s 

0  f-O  00 

0    ro 

t^OO 

0 

ro 

OS  t^O  vO  00 
IN     Tj-O  00     0 

0  -*O0  ^  M  0  0^  O-^  '^OO  CO  0-  t--  uo  100 
CO  10  t^  0    COO  CO    w    1000    M    1000    MOO-* 

0  0 

0 

0000 

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M     M     M     M     ^, 

(N  M  w  cocococor^■•^T^lolo  100  0  t-  r^ 

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CO  TfCO  CO  OsO  10  ^  Tl-O  0  M  t^  CO  0  OsOO 
Ol    Tj-O    OS  1-1    -^  t^  0    coo    OS  coo    0    ■*  t^  M 

0  0 

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M     M     M     H     C. 

0    <N    M    CN    rocorOTJ-TiJ-"^r)-io  loO  O  O    r^ 

°"- 

^'^t'? 

0  t^ 

%\ 

0   0     -i-   CO   tN 

<N   PO  >o  r^  0 

^  ^'S,,^  ^  ;:5s§  s§  ^  °^  R  n  ^cg  ^  j;?  a 

OOOOOOOOOOwwwMHH 


CO  CO  CO  CO  ■*  •*  Tf  1 


cooo  O  CO  1 


0000000000 


00000000000 


cOCOtOCOTfTl-TJ-lOl 


0     M     M 

<N    CO  CO  -*  100   r^  Os  0    c^ 

'^^S'^  &^°^asi:r^s  s;?:  ;;,cg  2  ^^^ 

000 

0    0 

^^^ 

CO  OsO    10  ^  ■^O  00    M    10 

<N  01   CO 'd- 100  t^oo  0  w 

OS  10  fs)    Os  r^  t-^  t^oo    Oc^O"OcoOoor^  r^oo    O 

(N     ^0     t^    OS   M     CO   LOOO     0     CM     LO  :-    0     CO^OO     W   ^00 

000 

0  0 

OOOOOOhm 

M     M     M     M     H     P)     M     IN     C^     rOCOCOCO-^Tf-itTj-lOlOlO 

0     M     M 

s^ 

CO  1*  100   r^oo    Os  0 

COOO    Tf-  O  OO  O    LOO  O  00    M    ^CO    Tj-  O  O    ';^  CO  M    O) 
IN     CO  LO  r^OO     O     Ol     ^O  00     1-1     CO  LOOO     1-1     coo     Os  M     LO 

000 

0  0 

^      ^      :: 

0  0 

0    0     OsCO  CO     Os  1-1     -* 
CO  ■^  Tf  100    t^  Os  0 

,^  „  ^  oi    OsO    ^cocorfior~-0    Tt-OsLo«ooO    lo 
M    co-*o   r^OsM    coiot^OsM    'tooo    M    ^O    OsiN 

000 

0  0 

^"it 

Oslo 

0    00    0      10    ./^   LOO   00 

CO  CO  ^  100    r^co    OS 

M  t%'^%^  S^s  %^^  o  ;?^sFS^  ^RS; 

000 

0  0 

00000000 

MMl-lHHM0)<NC^lNCS)fOCOCOCOCOTl-rJ-Tf-<t 

10  Os  COOO    Tt- 

0     0     M     M     <N 

OsO     ^M     1-1     M     1-1     COlOt-~l-llOOLOP)     <S^'0     LO  Tj-   ^   100   00     M     rt-   0\  -rf-   Os 

(N    CO  rr  100    t^oo    OS  0    M    CO  Tt-so   t^  OS  0  ^    -tso  00    0^  ^  PL  OS  M    ?so 

000 

0  0 

00000000 

MMHHMMW<NP)<s)M<NCOCOCOCOCO^TtTt 

^8^^ 

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<N     CO  ^   rf   LOO     t--CO 

OsQ    coo    O    LOOO    coO    Osr^i^r^oo    Osn-Tfco    c^ 
OS  w    IN    CO  too  oo    Os  M    PO  TfO  OOOoi-^r^OsMM- 

000 

0    0 

00000000 

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o"o    M 

0    " 

LO   01      OsO     1^    CO   C^      CN 

M    CO  CO  ^  LOO    r-00 

OS  O    1-1    <N    •^  LOO  00    O    IH    CO  LOO  00    O    M    ^O    OS  1-1 

000 

0    0 

00000000 

OMMMMMMlHP)MO)C^M<NCOCOCOCOCOrt- 

^^M 

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M    M    cs    CO  CO  -^  10  100    1^00    OS  0    1-1    CO  -^  »0  r^OO    0    w    CO  lOO  CO    O    cs    tJ-O  00 

000 

0  0 

00000000 

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?B-H 

TfOC 

'^ioo^Ot^'^c^i-iOOOi-icsi-^r^Ocor-~o)r^coOsO'^c^OOsO- 

IN     Cs.     COTh    ^    LOO     t-00     OS    0     M     <N     CO^O     t-.00     0     M     C0^0(»0     ?1      ^>>) 

000 

0  0 

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§■^8^ 

CO  r- 

00  H   r^cooco    10 

01  cs    CO  CO  'I-  to  100 

tTcocs)    oi    co-^lOf^O    COO    O    LOOO    csjoOsD    cow 
t-00    OsO    w    C4    coito    t^OO    O    M    ^^O    S.  OS  m'  CO 

000 

0    0 

00000000 

OOOl-IMMHWHHHMP)lN<NW<NO)rOCO 

"0'%% 

CN     LO 

Os  cooo    ^00    COOCOO    lOTj-coco-*  LOO  OOMTj-t^HioOiOMl^Tl- 
r,   0   <N   to  ^  'i-  LOO  0   r^oo   Os  0   M   <N   CO  tJ"  lo  t^oo   Os  M   CN   Tf  lo  r-.oo   0 

000 

0     0 

00000000 

OOOOmih„hhhhmh(n(n<sincs<nco 

°°°. 

M      rf 

-  S  ^_  lo^  ^=^  ^ 

IN    Ost^iOT^cocOcoco-^Lor^OsOi    LOOO    <N  so    M  so 
O  O    t^OO    OS  O    w    "    CO  Tf  LOO    r^  Os  O    H    CO  rt-O    ti 

OOOOOOOO 


Tf  LOO   i>.00    O^  O    w    0)    CO  •*  LOO   t^oo    Os  O 


520 


APPENDIX 


TABLE   V. 


THE   NEW   HAMPSHIRE   OR   BLODGETT 
LOG   RULEi 


11 

_rt.S 

Length 

in  feet. 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

|. 

34 

36 

38 

40 

Q.S 

Contents  i 

n  board  feet. 

4 

5 

6 

7 

9 

10 

10 

II 

13 

14 

IS 

16 

17 

18 

15 

20 

21 

5 

8 

10 

II 

13 

15 

17 

18 

20 

21 

23 

24 

26 

28 

3C 

31 

33 

6 

12 

14 

16 

19 

22 

24 

26 

29 

31 

34 

37 

38 

41 

4. 

46 

49 

7 

i6 

19 

22 

26 

29 

33 

36 

39 

43 

46 

5c 

52 

56 

5? 

63 

66 

22 

26 

30 

35 

39 

43 

48 

52 

57 

61 

6s 

70 

74 

7f 

83 

87 

9 

27 

33 

43 

50 

54 

60 

6S 

70 

77 

81 

87 

93 

96 

103 

108 

10 

34 

41 

48 

54 

61 

68 

75 

82 

88 

95 

102 

109 

116   ] 

2. 

129 

136 

II 

41 

50 

57 

66 

74 

82 

90 

98 

107 

IIS 

123 

131 

140   1 

48 

157 

164 

12 

49 

58 

69 

78 

88 

97 

108 

117 

127 

137 

147 

157 

166   I 

r 

186 

196 

13 

57 

70 

92 

103 

115 

126 

137 

149 

161 

172 

183 

195   5 

0' 

218 

230 

14 

66 

80 

93 

106 

120 

133 

146 

160 

174 

186 

20c 

213 

226   2 

4C 

253 

266 

IS 

77 

91 

107 

123 

137 

153 

168 

183 

199 

214 

230 

244 

260   2 

7= 

290 

305 

i6 

87 

104 

122 

139 

157 

174 

191 

209 

226 

243 

261 

278 

296  2 

I. 

330 

348 

17 

98 

117 

137 

157 

177 

197 

216 

236 

255 

275 

295 

314 

334   3 

5; 

373 

392 

18 

no 

132 

154 

176 

198 

220 

242 

264 

284 

308 

330 

352 

374  2 

9- 

418 

440 

19 

123 

148 

171 

197 

221 

245 

270 

294 

319 

343 

368 

392 

417   4 

42 

466 

490 

136 

163 

190 

217 

244 

271 

299 

326 

353 

380 

408 

435 

462   4 

9C 

517 

543 

21 

150 

180 

210 

240 

270 

300 

330 

360 

390 

420 

45c 

480 

510   5 

4C 

570 

600 

22 

i6s 

197 

230 

262 

296 

329 

363 

395 

427 

460 

493 

526 

559   5 

92 

624 

657 

23 

iSo 

216 

251 

287 

323 

359 

396 

431 

467 

503 

539 

575 

610  (. 

4" 

683 

718 

24 

196 

235 

274 

313 

352 

391 

430 

469 

509 

548 

587 

626 

665   - 

04 

739 

783 

25 

212 

255 

297 

339 

383 

424 

467 

509 

551 

595 

637 

679 

722   - 

64 

807 

849 

26 

230 

276 

322 

367 

413 

459 

505 

551 

597 

643 

689 

735 

781   8 

2- 

872 

918 

27 

248 

297 

347 

397 

446 

496 

544 

594 

643 

693 

743 

792 

842  f 

91 

941 

990 

28 

266 

319 

373 

426 

479 

533 

586 

639 

692 

745 

799 

852 

905   5 

5i 

I0I2 

1065 

29 

2S5 

343 

400 

457 

514 

572 

629 

685 

743 

800 

865 

914 

971  IC 

25 

1085 

1143 

30 

306 

367 

428 

489 

550 

611 

672 

734 

795 

856 

91- 

978 

1039  I 

0 

I162 

1223 

31 

326 

391 

457 

514 

588 

653 

718 

783 

849 

914 

975 

1044 

mo  11 

7. 

1240 

32 

348 

417 

487 

557 

626 

696 

765 

835 

904 

974 

1043 

1113 

II83  I. 

5 

1322 

33 

370 

443 

517 

592 

666 

740 

814 

888 

962 

1036 

IIIC 

1 183 

1257  I. 

3 

34 

392 

471 

549 

628 

707 

785 

863 

943 

1021 

1099 

1178 

1257 

1335  I- 

I- 

35 

416 

499 

583 

666 

749 

832 

916 

998 

1082 

1 165 

125 

1331 

1415 

36 

440 

528 

617 

704 

792 

880 

969 

1057 

1144 

1232 

132 

1409 

1497 

37 

46s 

558 

6SI 

744 

837 

930 

1023 

1116 

1209 

1302 

139. 

1488 

38 

490 

S89 

687 

785 

883 

981 

1079 

1177 

1275 

1374 

147 

1569 

39 

517 

620 

723 

827 

930 

1034 

I137 

1240 

1343 

1446 

IS5C 

40 

543 

652 

761 

870 

978 

1087 

II 96 

1304 

1413 

1522 

163c 

5    ... 

41 

571 

685 

799 

914 

1028 

1142 

1257 

1370 

1484 

1598 

42 

599 

719 

839 

959 

1078 

1108 

1318 

1438 

1557 

1678 

43 

626 

751 

877 

1002 

II26 

1 25 1 

1,577 

1502 

1627 

44 

657 

790 

921 

1052 

1183 

1315 

1447 

1578 

1709 

45 

688 

826 

963 

IIOI 

1238 

1376 

1513 

1650 

'.'.'. 

46 

718 

863 

1006 

1149 

1294 

1437 

1581 

172s 

47 

742 

900 

1050 

1201 

1350 

1501 

1650 

48 

783 

939 

1096 

1252 

1409 

1565 

1722 

::: 

From  the  Woodman's  Handbook. 


APPENDIX 


521 


TABLE   VI. 


VOLUME  OF   SOLID  WOOD   PER   128   CUBIC 
FEET   OF   SPACE  1 


1st  class, 
small  diameter 
over  5.5  inches. 


2nd  class,       I        3rd  class, 
small  diameter  j  small  diameter 
2.5  to  5.5  inches.  I. o  to  2.5  inches. 


2nd  and  3rd 
classes, 
mixed. 


26 
28 
30 
Feet 

3 

4 

5 

6 


91.98 
91.80 
91.67 
91.50 
91.37 
91.20 
91.  OS 
90.90 
90.75 
90.60 
90.4s 


85 

40 

8s 

25 

85 

10 

84 

95 

84 

80 

84 

67 

84 

50 

84 

35 

84 

20 

84 

OS 

83 

90 

83 

40 

82 

42 

81 

30 

80 

00 

-8 

82 

77 

20 

75 

80 

74 

30 

72 

80 

71 

20 

69 

60 

67 

95 

65.65 

6s.  60 
65.55 
65.50 
65.40 
65.32 
65  23 
65.12 
65.00 

64.60 
63.62 
62.60 
61.60 
60.55 
59.40 
58.20 
56.90 
55-60 
54.2s 
52.90 
51.50 


88.69 
88.53 
88.39 
88.23 
88.09 
87.94 
87.78 
87.63 
87.48 
87.33 


86.69 
85.67 
84.53 
83.23 
82.10 
80.48 
79.10 
77.65 
76.20 
74.63 
73  03 
71.40 


1  From  Factors  Influencing  the  Volume  of  Solid  Wood  in  the  Cord,  by  Raphael  Zon,  Forestry- 
Quarterly,  Vol.  I,  p.  132. 


TABLE   VII.— VOLUME   OF   SOLID   WOOD   IN    STACKS  ^ 

(4  feet  high,  8  feet  long,  and  of  varying  widths) 


Length  of 
stick. 

1st  class. 

2nd  class. 

3rd  class. 

1st  and  2nd 

2nd  and  3rd 

small  diameter 

small  diameter 

small  diameter 

classes. 

classes. 

over  5.5  inches. 

2.5  to  5.5  inches. 

i.oto  2.5  inches. 

mixed. 

mixed. 

Inches. 

Cubic  feet. 

10 

19.  SO 

17.50 

14.00 

18.50 

15.75 

12 

23 

50 

21.00 

16.00 

22.25 

18.50 

14 

27 

32 

24.50 

19.00 

25.91 

21.75 

16 

31 

00 

28.50 

21.50 

29.75 

25.00 

18 

35 

00 

32.00 

24.30 

33  50 

28.15 

20 

37 

50 

35.00 

27.00 

36.25 

31.00 

22 

42 

20 

39.00 

30.00 

40.60 

34.50 

24 

46 

02 

42.00 

32.70 

44.01 

37.. -^5 

26 

50 

00 

46.  CO 

35.20 

48.00 

40.60 

28 

53 

21 

49.00 

38-00 

5J.11 

43 .  50 

30 

57 

00 

53.00 

41.00 

55.00 

47.00 

Feet 

3 

68. 50 

63.00 

SO. 00 

65.75 

56 .  50 

4 

88.92 

82.42 

63.62 

85.67 

73.02 

5 

108,50 

loi . 50 

78.00 

105.00 

89.75 

6 

128.50 

120.00 

92.30 

124.25 

106.15 

7 

149.55 

138.05 

106.41 

143.80 

122.23 

8 

170.00 

165. CO 

119.90 

167.50 

142.45 

9 

190.00 

175.00 

133-50 

182.50 

154.25 

10 

211.00 

193.00 

147.50 

201.00 

170.25 

II 

230.00 

210.50 

161.20 

220.25 

185. 85 

12 

250.00 

228.00 

175.00 

239.00 

201.50 

13 

269.00 

245.. 50 

189.00 

257-25 

2X7-25 

287. SO 

262.50 

203.00 

275.00 

232.75 

1  From   Factors  Influencing  the  \'olume  of   Solid  Wood  in 
Quarterly,  Vol.  I,  p.  133. 


Cord,  by  Raphael  Zon,  Forestry 


522 


APPENDIX 


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LOG  GRADING   RULES 


HARDWOOD  LOG  GRADING  RULES 

(Nashville  (Tenn.)  Lumbermen's  Association) 

"Logs  shall  be  graded  as  follows  and  designated  as  No.  i,  No.  2, 
No.  3,  No.  4,  No.  5  and  No.  6. 

"No.  I  logs  shall  be  30  inches  and  up  in  diameter,  fresh  cut, 
green,  straight  and  free  from  knots,  windshakes  and  other  defects. 

"No.  2  logs  shall  be  27  to  30  inches  in  diameter  inclusive, 
fresh  cut,  green,  straight  and  free  from  knots,  windshakes  and 
other  defects,  except  that  this  grade  may  take  logs  30  inches 
and  up  in  diameter  with  one  to  three  small  soHd  knots  not 
exceeding  3  inches  in  diameter. 

"No.  3  logs  shall  be  24  to  26  inches  in  diameter  inclusive,  fresh 
cut,  green,  straight  and  free  from  knots,  windshakes  and  other 
defects,  except  that  this  grade  may  take  logs  27  inches  and  up  in 
diameter  with  one  to  three  small  sohd  knots  not  exceeding  3 
inches  in  diameter. 

"No.  4  logs  shall  be  20  to  23  inches  in  diameter  inclusive,  fresh 
cut,  green,  straight  and  free  from  knots,  windshakes  and  other 
defects,  except  that  this  grade  may  take  logs  24  inches  and  up 
in  diameter  with  one  to  three  small  solid  knots  not  exceeding 
3  inches  in  diameter. 

"No.  5  logs  shall  be  15  to  18  inches  in  diameter  inclusive,  fresh 
cut,  green,  and  free  from  knots,  windshakes  and  other  defects, 
except  that  this  grade  may  take  logs  20  inches  and  up  in  diameter 
with  one  to  three  small  solid  knots  not  exceeding  3  inches  in 
diameter. 

"No.  6  logs  shall  be  12  to  14  inches  in  diameter  inclusive, 
fresh  cut,  green,  straight  and  free  from  knots,  windshakes  and 
other  defects,  except  that  this  grade  may  take  logs  15  inches  and 
up  in  diameter  with  one  to  three  small  solid  knots  not  exceeding 
3  inches  in  diameter. 

"All  logs  shall  be  cut  full  length. 
525 


526  APPENDIX 

''The  following  rules  shall  govern  all  measurements  for  de- 
fects. 

"For  a  hollow  log  two-thirds  of  the  diameter  of  the  hollow  in 
inches,  shall  be  deducted  from  the  diameter  of  the  log  and  the 
hollow  shall  be  measured  the  long  way. 

"Old  logs  shall  have  the  following  deductions  made  from  con- 
tents: 2  inches  for  logs  that  have  been  held  over  one  season, 
or  that  show  sound  discolored  sap;  4  inches  for  logs  older  than 
one  season,  or  that  show  rotten,  or  doty  sap.  Logs  that  show 
worm  holes  below  sap  line  shall  be  classed  as  No.  6. 

"All  logs  shall  be  measured  at  both  ends.  When  there  is  a 
variation  of  one  inch  in  the  diameter,  the  least  end  shall  be  taken 
as  the  measurement  of  the  log;  if  a  variation  of  2  inches,  the 
number  of  inches  shall  be  divided;  if  3  inches  the  number  of 
inches  shall  be  divided  as  if  only  2  inches;  if  4  inches,  the  diam- 
eter shall  be  divided,  but  if  the  difference  exceeds  4  inches  it 
shall  be  divided  as  if  only  4  inches. 

"  'Edged'  logs  shall  be  measured  the  flat  way. 

"All  crotch,  or  forked  logs  shall  be  cut  off  sufficient  to  clear 
the  crotch  or  fork. 

"All  crooked  logs  shall  be  classed  as  No.  6,  unless  sufficient 
deductions  are  made  for  straightening. 

"Ash  Logs.  —  The  same  grading  for  defects  shall  apply  to  ash 
logs  as  applies  to  other  logs,  but  ash  logs  shall  be  of  the  following 
sizes:  No.  i,  24  inches  and  up  in  diameter;  No.  2,  20  to  23 
inches  inclusive  in  diameter;  No.  3,  18-  and  19-inch  logs;  No.  4, 
16-  and  17-inch  logs;  No.  5,  15-inch  logs;  No.  6,  12-,  13-  and 
14-inch  logs. 

"  Linn,  buckeye,  hickory,  gum,  sycamore,  beech,  maple,  butler- 
nut,  pine  and  hackberry  logs.  — 

"No.  I  shall  be  24  inches  and  up  in  diameter,  fresh  cut,  green, 
straight  and  free  from  knots,  windshakes  and  other  defects. 

"No.  2  shall  be  20  to  23  inches  in  diameter  inclusive,  fresh 
cut,  green,  straight  and  free  from  knots,  windshakes  and  other 
defects;  except  that  this  grade  may  take  logs  24  inches  and  up  in 
diameter  with  one  to  three  small  solid  knots  not  exceeding  3 
inches  in  diameter. 


APPENDIX  527 

"No.  3  shall  be  15  to  19  inches  in  diameter  inclusive,  fresh  cut, 
green,  straight  and  free  from  knots,  windshakes  and  other 
defects;  except  that  this  grade  may  take  logs  20  inches  and  up 
in  diameter  with  one  to  three  small  solid  knots  not  exceeding  3 
inches  in  diameter. 

"Walnut  Logs. — Walnut  logs  shall  be  subject  to  special 
agreement  between  buyer  and  seller  as  to  size  and  grading. 
No  piece  of  timber  will  be  considered  a  saw  log,  or  will  be 
measured  as  such,  that  is  smaller  in  diameter  than  12  inches. 

"  Spikes.  —  Seller  of  logs  will  be  held  responsible  for  damage 
resulting  from  spikes,  or  pieces  of  iron  in  logs. 

"Brands. — -All  logs  should  be  branded  before  being  brought 
to  market.  Defacing,  or  changing  of  brands  on  logs,  subjects 
perpetrator  to  prosecution." 

DOUGLAS    FIR  LOG    GRADING   RULES 

(Columbia  River  Log  Scaling  and  Grading  Bureau) 
NO.    I    LOGS 

"No.  I  logs  shall  be  30  inches  or  over  in  diameter  inside  the 
bark  at  the  small  end,  reasonably  straight  grained,  and  not  less 
than  16  feet  long;  and  shall  be  logs  which  in  the  judgment  of  the 
scaler  will  contain  at  least  50  per  cent  of  their  scaled  contents 
in  lumber  in  the  grades  of  No.  i  and  No.  2  Clear  lumber. 

"  In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  a  pitch  ring  is  not  a  serious  grade 
defect  in  a  No.  i  log,  provided  its  location  and  size  does  not  prevent  the 
log  cutting  the  requisite  amount  of  Clears.  The  same  applies  to  rot. 
Pitch  pockets,  seams,  knots,  etc.,  are  defects  which  impair  the  grade  in 
proportion  to  their  effect  on  the  amount  of  Clears  the  log  contains.  A  No.  i 
log  will  admit  a  few  small  knots,  but  must  be  surface  clear  for  at  least  four- 
fifths  its  length;  a  few  pitch  pockets,  as  permitted  in  the  grades  of  clear 
lumber,  but  no  combination  of  defects  which  will  prevent  the  required 
percentage  of  Clears. 

NO.    2   LOGS 

"No.  2  logs  shall  be  16  inches  or  over  in  diameter  inside  the 
bark  at  the  small  end;  not  less  than  16  feet  long,  and  having 
defects  which  prevent  its  grading  No.  i,  but  which  will  in  the 
judgment  of  the  scaler  be  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  lumber 
principally  in  grades  of  'merchantable'  and  better. 


528  APPENDIX 

NO.    3    LOGS 

"No.  3  logs  shall  be  12  inches  or  over  in  diameter  inside  the 
bark  at  the  small  end;  not  less  than  16  feet  long;  having  defects 
which  prevent  its  grading  No.  2  and  shall  in  the  judgment  of 
the  scaler  be  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  the  inferior  grades 
of  lumber. 

CULL   LOGS 

''Cull  logs  shall  be  any  logs  which  do  not  contain  50  per  cent 
of  sound  lumber. 

"All  logs  to  be  scaled  by  the  Spalding  Rule." 

"Note.  —  The  various  lumber  tallies  we  have  had  of  graded  yellow  fir 
rafts  have  shown  that,  figuring 

No.  I  logs  to  contain  50  per  cent  of  Clears, 
No.  2  logs  to  contain  25  per  cent  of  Clears, 
No.  3  logs  to  contain  no  Clears, 
there  is  a  substantial  overrun  in  the  Clears  obtained. 

"  Note.  —  There  are  defects  characteristic  of  logs  from  certain  localities 
for  which  it  is  impossible  to  make  rigid  rules." 


WAGE   LISTS 


MONTANA  AND   IDAHO,   NOVEMBER,  191 1 


Power  logging: 
Yarding  liook  tenders. 

Rigging  slingers 

Yarding  engineers. . .  . 

Yarding  firemen 

Wood  buckers 

Chasers 

vSignal  men 

Spool  tenders 

Choker  men 

Head  loaders 

Locomotive  firemen. .  . 

Boom  men 

Railroad  graders 

Section  men 

Landing  builders 

Flunkies 

Second  loaders 

Knotters 

Swampers 

Buckers 

Head  fallers 

Second  fallers 

Undercutters 

Road  engineers 

Brakemen 

Locomotive  engineers. 

Pump  men 

Night  watchman 

Blacksmith's  helper.  .  . 

Bull  cook 

Blacksmith 


Flunkey 

Cook,  18  to  40  men 

Cook,  40  men  and  over. 

Bull  cook 

Blacksmith 


Locomotive  engineer. 

Board  per  day 

Board  per  week .  . .  . 


50  to  $4.00 

50  to    2.75 

3  50 

75 

50 


25  to 
00  to 


2 .  00  to 

2.7s 

1.75  to 

2.25 

2.50 

2.50 

2  .  50  to 

3-25 

2.50  to 

3.00 

2.50 

1.75  to 

2.00 

1.75  to 

2.00 

2.25 

2.25 

2.50 

2.50 

I . 75  to 

2.25 

2.50 

2.50 

2.25  to 

2.50 

2.25 

3  SO 

2 .  50  to 

3.00 

4.00 

2-25 

2.00  to 

3.00 

2.25  to 

2.50 

2.25 

2.50 

Rate  per  month. 

inclusive  of  board. 

$35.00  to 

$40.00 

65 . GO  to 

90.00 

75.00  to 

125.00 

30.00  to 

40.00 

75 . 00  to 

100.00 

Rate  per  month, 

exclusive  of  board. 

$100.00  to  $125.00 

•75 

5.00 

532 


APPENDIX 


MONTANA  AND   ID AUO.  — Continued 


Animal  logging: 

Foreman 

Stableman 

Blacksmith 

Handy  man 

Filer 

Bull  cook 

Scaler 

Teamster,  bookman  and  sawyer 

Swamper  and  common  labor.  .  .  . 

Board  per  week 

Foreman 

Cook,  furnish  helper 

Stableman 

Blacksmith 

Handy  man 

Filer 

Flunkey 

Bull  cook 

Clerk 

Scaler 


R.ate  per  day,  exclusive 
of  board. 

$3  50 

2 

50 

$2.50  to 

4 

00 

2. 25   to 

4 

00 

2.50  to 

3 

25 

2 

00 

2.25  to 

3 

.SO 

2.50  to 

00 

I . 75  to 

2 

5° 

5.00  to 

5 

25 

Rate  permonth. 
inclusive  of  board. 

$75.00  to  $125.00 

65.00  to 

75.00 

35.00  to 

65.00 

65.00  to 

75.00 

45.00  to 

50.00 

50.00 

30.00  to 

50.00 

30.00  to 

50.00 

45.00  to 

75.00 

65.00  to 

'5.00 

LAKE   STATES,   HEMLOCK  AND  HARDWOOD   OPERATIONS, 
1911-1912 


Chore  boy. 
Swamper.  . 
Roadman.  . 
Cookee .... 
vSawyer .... 
Hookman. . 
Teamster.  . 
Barnman.  . 
Top  loader. 
Blacksmith 

Cook 

Engineer. . . 


Rate  per 

month 

including  board 

$26 

00 

26 

00 

37 

00 

29 

00 

30 

00 

31 

00 

31 

00 

32 

00 

35 

00 

56 

00 

65 

00 

73 

00 

APPENDIX 
SOUTHERN  PINE  REGION,  TEXAS,   191 1 


533 


Power  (cableway)  logging: 

Foreman 

Skidder  leverman 

Loading  leverman 

Top  loader 

Ground  loader 

Fireman 

Tong  hooker 

Tong  unhooker 

Helper 

Rigging  slinger 

Helper 

Run  cutter 

Wood  cutter  and  hauler. 
Night  watchman 


Rate  per  day,  exclusive 
of  board. 


•SO 


ARKANSAS,   191 2 


Animal  logging: 

Sawyer 

Teamster 

Ox  driver 

Swamper 

Loading  engineer 

Top  loader 

Ground  loader 

Foreman  steel  crew 

Steel  crew  spiker 

Steel  crew  labor 

Foreman,  cutting  right-of-way 

Right-of-way  labor 

Locomotive  engineer 

Locomotive  fireman 

Scaler 

Filer 

Barnman 

Blacksmith 


Camp  foreman . 
Team  boss 


Rate  per  day,  exclusive 
of  board. 

$1.90  to  $2.25 

I  .  90  to   2  .  00 

2.10 

1.90 

3.50  to  4.00 

2.25 
1.90 
3.60 
1.65 
1.60 
2.25 
1.65 
3.00 

1-75 
2.25 
■  3  00 
1.90  to  2. 10 
2.25 

Rate  per  month,  exclu- 
sive of  board 

$150.00 
85.00 


CYPRESS   REGION,  LOUISIANA, 


1910 


Cableway  skidder  operation 

Skidder  leverman 

Head  rigger 

Rigging  helper 

Skidder  fireman 

Tong  hooker 

Helper 


Rate  per  day,  exclusive 
of  board . 


•SO 
•SO 
•75 
.50  to 

•25 
•75 


534 


APPENDIX 

LOUISIANA.  —  Continued 


Cypress  logging,  cableway  skidder  operation  : 

Tong  unhooker 

Run  cutter 

Signal  man 

Loading  leverman , 

Top  loader 

Ground  loader 

Slack  puller 


ate 

per  day,  exclusive 
of  board. 

$1 
2 

■50 
.00 

I 

2 

I 

•50 

•75 
•25 

•  75  to 

2.00 

VERMONT,    191 2 


Teamster,  2  horses 

Teamster,  4  horses  on  sled  hauls 

Head  chopper 

Cant-dog  man 

Cook 


$35 


Rate  per  month, 
including  board. 

_    GO  to  $38.00 

40 .  GO  to  45 .  00 
35.00  to  38.00 
35.00  to  38.00 


Rate  per  day,  including 
board. 


$1.50  to  $2.25 


PROVINCE   OF  ONTARIO,  CANADA,    1911-1912 


Sawyer.  .  .  . 
Teamster.  , 

Roller 

Sender . . . . . 
Swamper.  . 
Notcher.  .  , 
Top  loader 

Taller 

Scaler 


Rate  per  month, 
including  board. 

$30.00 
32.00 
32.00 
30.00 
26.00  to  28.00 

32.00 
32.00 

28.00 
60.00 


PACIFIC  COAST,   1 91 2 


Yarding: 

Crew  boss 

Head  faller.  .  .  . 
Second  faller  .  . 

Bucker 

Hook  tender.  .  . 
Rigging  slinger 


Rate,  exclusive  of  board. 

$125.00  per  month 
3 .  50  per  day 
3-25  "  " 
$3.25  to  3.75  "  " 
5.00  "  " 
3-5°     "      " 


APPENDIX 


535 


PACIFIC   COAST.  —  Continued 


Yarding: 

Choker  man .-  . 

Chaser 

Signalman.  .  .  . 
Head  loader.  . 
Second  loader. 

Engineer 

Fireman 

Wood  backer. 

Swamper 

Sniper 

Knotter 

Barker 

Spool  tender.  . 
Stake  maker. . 


Railroad  grade  construction: 

Boss 

Swamper 

Grader 

Bucker 

Chunk  bucker 

Faller 

Powderman 

Hook  tender 

Rigging  slinger 

Engineer 

Fireman 


Miscellaneous: 

Landing  builder 

Landing  man 

Steel  crew  boss 

Tieman 

Rail  handler 

Bolter 

Liner 

Spiker. 

Locomotive  engineer. 
Locomotive  fireman. . 

Brakeman 

Section  boss 

Section  man 

Bookkeeper 

Head  mechanic 

Blacksmith 

Filer 

Scaler 

Head  cook 

Second  cook , 

Bull  cook 

Flunkey , 


Rate,  exclusive  of  board. 


$3 . GO  to 


4.50  to 


3.2s  to 


$3- 

25   per  day 

3-25 

2.50 

5.00 

3   50 

3  50 

2.75 

2.75 

2.50 

3.00 

2-75 

2-75 

2-75 

2-75     " 

125.00  per  month 

2 

50  per  day 

2 

50     "      " 

3 

75     "      " 

2 

75     "      " 

3 

50     "      " 

3 

50     "      " 

4 

50     "       " 

3 

50     "      " 

3 

25     "      " 

2.75     ■■       ■• 

4.00     "       " 

2-5°     '\      ;' 

4.00 

2-5°       ''         '' 

2.25 

2.50    "     " 

2.25    "     " 

2.25    "     " 

100.00  per  month 

75.00     " 

75.00     " 

3 .  50  per  day 

2.50     "      " 

100.00  per  month 

125.00     " 

60 . 00     " 

60.00     " 

75.00 

100.00     " 

75 -oo     \\         ;| 

40.00 

40 

.00 

STUMPAGE   VALUES 


EASTERN  WHITE  PINE' 


Michigan. 


Wisconsin  and 
Minnesota. 


866 
867 
868 
869 
870 
871 
872 
873 
874 
875 
876 
877 
878 
879 
880 
881 
882 
883 
884 
88s 
886 
887 
888 
889 
890 
891, 
892. 
893- 
894. 
895- 
896. 
897. 
898. 
899. 
900. 
901. 
902. 

903- 
904. 

905- 
908. 
910. 


.00- 

•25- 
•50- 


2 

.00- 

2 

.00- 

2 

00- 

2 

00- 

2 

00- 

2 

00- 

2 

25- 

2 

25- 

2 

25- 

2 

25- 

2 

50- 

2 

75- 

3 

00- 

3 

50- 

4 

00- 

4 

00- 

4 

50- 

4 

50- 

4 

50- 

4 

So- 

4 

50- 

4 

50- 

5 

00- 

6 

00- 

4 

00- 

4 

00- 

4 

00- 

4 

00- 

6 

00- 

8 

00- 

8 

00- 

8 

00- 

10 

00- 

10 

00- 

10 

00- 

10. 

00- 

1 .  25  per  acre 

1 .  50  per  acre 

1.7s  per  1000  feet  b. 

2 .  50 

2.50 
2.50 
2.50 
2.50 
2-50 
2.75 
2-75 
2-75 
2-75 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

00 

00 

00 

50 

50 

50 


10.00-  20.00 
Dead  and  down  Indian  timber 
Indian  timber 


Price  per  1000  feet 
b.  m. 


$0.25- 

•75- 

•75- 

■75- 

•75- 

•75- 

1 .00- 

1 .00- 

1 .00- 

i.oo- 

i.oo- 

1.25- 
125- 
125- 

I-50- 

2.00- 

2.00- 

2.00- 

2.00- 

2.00- 

2.00- 

2.00- 

2.25- 

•50- 

.50- 

50- 

.00- 

.00- 

.00- 


2. 

3- 

3- 

3- 

3- 

3- 

3-50- 

350- 

350- 

350- 

4.00- 

4.00- 

4.00- 

4.00- 

4.00- 

9.00 

8.00- 


2.25 
2.25 
2.50 
2.75 
3.00 
3.00 
3.00 
3.00 
3-25 
3  25 
350 
4.00 
5.00 
6.00 
00 


00 
00 
00 
8.00 
8.00 
9.00 
9.00 
10.00 
12.00 
15.00 


1  The  values  for  the  years  1866-1905  inclusive  are  taken  from  the  American  Lumberman,  Chicago, 
111.,  January  6,  1906. 


539 


540 


APPENDIX 


EASTERN   WHITE   PINE   TIMBER   SOLD   BY   THE 
STATE  OF  MINNESOTA! 


880 
881 
882 
883 
884 
885 
886 
887 
888 
889 
890 
891 
892 
893 
894 


Average  price 
per  1000  feet. 


.1.47 
1.62 
1-57 
1.77 
2.  II 

1-73 
2.19 

2.35 
2-54 
2.18 


189s 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 


Average  price 
per  1000  feet. 


$2.18 
2.06 
2.52 
2.86 
2.64 
5-17 
5-93 
8.38 
6.02 
7.71 
7.18 
9.00 
7.83 

7-53 


1  From  The  Lumber  Industry,  Part  I,  Standing  Timber,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor, 
Bureau  of  Corporations,  Washington,  D.C.,  1913,  p.  200. 


APPENDIX 


541 


o  p 


ii 


S  u 
So 


si 


^  a 


it 


■5  b 


8E 

"02 


1^ Tf 


It 

3     3 


PARTIAL  ESTIMATE,  BY  STATES, 

OF  THE  STANDING  TIMBER 

IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


APPENDIX 


545 


PARTIAL  ESTIMATE,   BY   STATES,   OF  THE   STANDING 
TIMBER   IN   THE  UNITED   STATES  ^ 

(In  billions  of  board  feet) 


Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Florida 

Georgia  (part) 

Idaho 

Louisiana 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri  (part) 

Montana 

Nevada 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

South  Carolina  (part) . 

South  Dakota 

Texas 

Utah 

Virginia  (part) 

Washington 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

Other  states 


^-s 


56.3 


78.7 
381.4 


73-9 
46.0 
[29.1 
[19.8 
47.6 
23.2 

95-3 

9.9 

65,6 


545-8 
30- 7 


145 

391.0 

29.  2 


.2  S3 


38 


SS.2 


^S^. 
^S"? 
^^^ 


1  From  The  Lumber  Industry,  Part  I,  Standing  Timber,  ] 
and  Labor,  Bureau  of  Corporations,  1913. 


66-67,  Department  of  Commerce 


546 


APPENDIX 


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INDEX 


Abies  balsamea,  13. 
Abies  concolor,  15. 
Abies  lasiocarpa,  16. 
Abies  magnitica,  15. 
Abies  sp.,  9. 

Abutments  for  the  improvement  of  stream  banks,  360,  illustration,  359. 
Acer  macrophyllum,  19. 
Acer  rubrum,  19. 
Acer  saccharinum,  19. 
Acer  saccharum,  19. 

Acid  wood,  transport  in  flumes,  394,  400,  410. 
Acts,  Workmen's  Compensation,  51. 

Adams,  Daniel  W.,  on  prevention  and  control  of  forest  fires,  38,  469. 
Adirondack  Mountain  region,  length  of  logs  cut  in,  98. 
log  brands  in,  371. 
log  rule  used  in,  113. 
pulpwood  flume  in,  398. 
rafter  dam  in,  352. 
Aerial  tramways,  222,  469. 

in  the  Northwest,  223,  224,  433. 
in  Tennessee,  222. 
in  West  Virginia,  435. 
^sculus  glabra,  23. 

Alabama,  cars  and  locomotives  used  on  an  operation  in,  321. 
cost  of  moving  earth  in,  262. 
crew  for  logging  with  bummers,  179. 
Alaska,  logging  methods  in,  436. 
period  of  logging  in,  436. 
price  of  lumber,  average  retail,  438. 
Alder,  resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  76. 
Allen,  Edward  T.,  on  the  western  hemlock,  10,  23,  472. 
Allen,  E.  W.,  on  the  feeding  of  farm  animals,  133,  134,  135,  137,  469. 
Alligator  for  towing  logs  across  a  lake,  377,  379. 
American  log  loader.  Model  "C,"  325. 
Model  "D,"  326. 
American  Lumberman,  8,  247,  264,  478. 
Angle  bars  for  steel  rails,  288,  289,  illustration,  288. 
Animal  power,  for  headworks,  377. 

for  power  logging,  206,  207. 
Animals,  barns  for,  59,  64. 
corrals  for,  66. 
decking  logs  with,  141. 
drumming,  150. 

feeding  stuffs  for,  feeding  value  of,  134,  135. 
feeding  standards,  133. 
hand  logging  with,  146. 
hauling,  bummers,  179,  180. 
cars,  245. 
carts,  184. 
sleds,  158,  172. 
snow  plows,  168. 

547 


548  INDEX 

Animals,  hauling,  sprinkler,  169. 

wagons,  187,  188,  190,  191. 
horses,  131,  184. 
loading  log  cars  by,  143,  322. 
loading  portable  houses  by,  63. 
log  cars,  loading  by,  143. 

log  hauler,  steam,  number  of  horses  equivalent  to,  177. 
logging  with,  Colorado,  423. 

Lake  States,  426. 
New  England,  420. 
Northeast,  425. 

portable  mill  operations,  420,  423. 
South,  428. 

West  Virginia,  434,  435. 
logs,  decking  with,  141. 
mules,  131,  184. 
output  per  team,  skidding,  154. 
oxen,  129. 

picking  rear  with,  377. 
pole  roads,  hauling  cars  on,  245. 
rations  for,  132. 
slide  transport  with,  237,  239. 
snaking  with,  146. 
stables  for,  59. 

stringer  roads,  hauling  cars  on,  245. 
transport  of  tanbark  with,  461,  465. 
trips,  daily,  hauhng  two-sleds,  172. 
uses  for,  in  logging,  129. 
water  for,  138. 
Appalachians,  a  log  sorting  device  used  in  the,  366. 
cost  of  harvesting  tanbark  in,  463. 
drumming,  150. 

gates  used  in  logging  dams  in,  357,  358. 
hand  logging  in,  145. 
labor,  48. 

log  marks  and  brands  used  in,  371. 
season  in  which  logs  are  transported  by  water,  368. 
snaking  with  animals  in,  148. 
stringer  railroads  in,  245. 
stumpage  values  in,  20. 
use  of  cableway  skidders  in,  203. 
use  of  chutes  in,  236. 
use  of  slides  in,  230. 
Appendix,  467. 
Arkansas,  bummers  used  in,  178,  180. 

railroad  spur  grade  in,  260,  illustration,  260. 
wage  list,  533. 
Ash,  floating  ability  of,  374. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  22 
markets  for,  22. 
stand  per  acre,  22. 
stumpage  value  of,  22. 
uses  of,  22. 
Ashe,  W.  W.,  on  chestnut  oak  in  the  Appalachians,  23. 

on  white  oak  in  the  southern  Appalachians,  24. 
Aspen,  resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  76. 
Associations,  fire  protective,  35. 
Atkins,  E.  C.  and  Company,  on  saw-fitting,  77. 
Ax,  broadax,  73. 
cost  of,  73. 


INDEX  549 

Ax,  felling,  72,  189. 

felling  timber  with,  93,  421,  424,  42b,  43°- 
illustration,  73. 
turpentine,  73. 

Babb,  C.  C,  on  log  driving  and  lumbering,  393,  477- 
Back  spiking  a  railroad  track,  293. 
Bag-boom,  382. 

Balsam,  floating  ability  of,  374. 
Bank,  breaking  down  a,  375. 
Banking  grounds,  375. 

Baptist  cone,  212.  ,       •  a 

Baptist,  William,  inventor  of  a  system  of  power  loggmg,  igO- 
Barge  boom,  363. 
Barge,  log,  392. 
Bark,  chestnut  oak,  463. 
hemlock,  435,  459- 
tanbark  oak,  464. 
Bark  mark,  370.  "^ 

Barking  or  rossing,  104. 
Barnhart  log  loader,  323. 
Barns,  board,  64. 

car,  64,  illustration,  65. 
cost  of,  64,  66. 
log,  59- 
tent,  64. 
Barrel  and  Box,  478.  . 

Barrows  H   K.  on  log  driving  and  lumbermg,  393,  477- 

Bar[?eTl,  K  E  ,  on  questions  of  law  encountered  in  timber  bond  issues,  44,  476. 
Basswood,  18. 

floating  ability  of,  373,  374- 
lumber  cut,  1910,  21. 
markets  for,  21. 
stumpage  value  of,  21. 
uses  of,  21. 
Bateaux,  374,  379-  ,        .  .      .    ,       .         ^.    .^r 

Berry  E  J.,  on  the  use  of  electricity  in  logging,  221,  475- 
Berryi  Swift,  on  the  management  of  redwood  lands,  472- 
BettsH   S.,  on  California  tanbark  oak,  466,  476.  _ 

on  properties  and  uses  of  southern  pine,  23. 
Betula  lenta,  20. 
Betula  lutea,  20. 
Betula  papyri  fera,  20. 
Bibliography,  467- 
Big  Sandy  River,  rafting  on,  383. 
Birch,  associated  species  of,  13,  20. 
floating  ability  of,  373,  374- 
lumber  cut,  1910,  21. 
markets  for,  20. 
paper,  20. 

per  cent  of  logs  lost  on  drives,  345- 
preparation  for  floating,  373- 
resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  76. 
stand  per  acre,  20. 
stumpage  value  of,  21. 
sweet,  20. 
uses  of,  20,  21. 
yellow,  20. 
Blacksmith  shop,  tools  required  for  a  camp,  60. 


550  INDEX 

Blasting  rock,  drilling,  269. 

electric  fuse,  274. 
explosives,  271,  275. 
loading  holes  for,  272. 
primers  and  priming  for,  273. 
safety  fuse  and  caps  for,  273. 
tamping,  274. 
Blasting  stumps,  276. 

Blodgett  or  New  Hampshire  log  rule,  113,  520. 
Bob,  158. 

Boisen,  Anton  T.,  on  the  commercial  hickories,  23,  471. 
Bole,  factors  governing  the  amount  utilized,  96. 
Bonds,  timber,  39. 

character  of,  39. 
floating  an  issue  of,  42. 
sinking  fund  for,  41. 
Boom,  360. 

bag  or  sack,  382. 

barge,  363. 

bracket,  361,  365. 

catch,  377. 

chain,  361,  illustration,  361. 

fin,  362,  illustration,  362. 

harbor,  389. 

limber,  360,  361. 

on  large  streams,  379. 

plug,  361. 

round,  389. 

sheep-shank,  360,  361. 

sheer,  360. 

storage,  364,  365. 

cribs  for  holding  a,  364,  illustration,  363. 
towing,  367. 
trap,  377. 
Boom  companies,  369,  381. 

Canada,  369,  381,  384. 
liability  of,  369. 
Northeast,  425. 
Boom  sticks,  364. 

Booming  logs  in  the  Northwest,  cost  of,  434. 
Bottom,  logging,  cypress  region,  430. 
Lake  States,  426. 
Northeast,  424. 
Northwest,  432. 
Southern  pine,  428. 
West  Virginia,  435. 
Box,  flume  and  log  sluice,  396. 

lumber  and  nails  required  to  construct,  409,  412,  413. 
turpentine,  chipping,  445. 
cornering,  445. 
cutting,  444. 
dipping,  447. 
Bracket  boom,  361,  365. 

Bracket  or  needle  gate  for  a  logging  dam,  357. 

Bradfield,  Wesley,  on  the  amount  of  standing  timber  in  woodlots,  475. 
Brands,  log,  370,  371. 

dehorning,  372. 
legal  status  of,  372. 
Brands,  log,  recording,  372. 

validity  of,  in  Minnesota,  372. 


INDEX  551 

Braniff,  E.  A.,  on  grades  and  amounts  of  lumber  sawed  from  hardwoods,  105. 
on  scientific  management  and  the  lumber  business,  470. 
on  timber  bonds,  44,  476. 
Breakage  in  felling  logs,  90,  104. 
Bridges  for  sled  roads,  166. 

Bridges,  J.  B.,  on  laws  governing  the  use  of  streams  for  log  driving,  393,  478. 
British  Columbia,  hand  logging  in,  146. 
Broad-gauge  railroad,  cars  for,  315. 

Bruce,  Eugene  S.,  on  a  forest  working  plan  for  Township  40,  471. 
Brush,  broadcast  burning,  Northwest,  28. 
South,  28. 

pihng  and  burning,  Lake  States,  27. 

scattering.  Southwest,  26. 

top  lopping,  New  York,  26. 
Brush  burning,  cost  of,  28. 

hardwood.  Lake  States,  28. 
Brush  disposal,  cost  of,  27,  28,  422,  423,  437. 

on  small  operations,  Alaska,  437. 
on  small  operations,  Colorado,  422. 
Brutting,  145. 

Bryant,  R.  C,  on  waste  in  cutting  southern  pine,  loi,  105,  477. 
Buckeye,  23. 

Bucking  up  timber,  Northwest,  91,  99,  434. 
Bummer,  178,  428,  illustration,  178. 
Bundles,  rafts,  367,  387. 
Bunks,  log  camps,  58,  66. 

log  cars,  317,  318,  320. 
Butters,  Horace,  first  patentee  of  power  skidding  machinery,  196. 
Butt  rot,  124. 

Byrkit,  G.  M.,  on  a  machine  for  taking  up  railroad  track,  296,  473. 
BrjTie,  Austin  T.,  on  highway  construction  256,  296,  473. 

Cable,  adjustment  on  steel-spar  cableway  skidder,  197. 
aerial  tramway,  222,  223,  224. 

changing  from  one  run  to  another,  power  logging,  202,  211. 
extension,  for  a  cableway  skidder,  202. 
incline,  297,  298,  299,  300,  302. 
loading,  202,  329,  331. 
main,  for  cableway  skidder,  196,  201. 
messenger,  214. 

outhaul,  for  a  cableway  skidder,  198. 
skidding,  for  a  snaking  machine,  205. 
slack-rope  system,  208,  211,  214. 
spotting,  for  a  snaking  machine,  205. 
road  engine,  218. 
j^arding  engine,  214,  215,  217. 
Cableway  system,  power  skidding,  196. 

capacity,  203,  204,  431. 

conditions  to  which  it  is  adapted,  202. 

cost  of  operation,  203,  204. 

cost  of  repairs,  431. 

crew  for  operation,  203,  204. 

cutting  runs  for,  201. 

cj-press  region,  430,  431. 

head  spar  trees  for,  196,  197. 

illustrations,  197,  198,  199,  201. 

loading  logs  with,  202. 

logging  radius,  201,  204.  . 

method  of  operation,  199,  200. 

Northeast,  203,  424. 


552 


INDEX 


Cableway  system,  power  skidding,  Northwest,  204,  432. 

power  for  operating,  199. 
regions  in  which  used,  203,  204,  424,  427,  428 
slack  puller  for,  199,  200. 
southern  yellow  pine,  42S. 
tail  trees  for,  196,  197. 
trolleys  for,  198. 
unloading  log  cars  with,  334. 
West  Virginia,  435. 
California,  aerial  tramways  used  in,  228. 
flumes,  cost  of,  409. 
flumes,  lumber,  used  in,  399,  409. 
harvesting  tanbark  oak  in,  464. 
log  car  unloading  device  used  in,  339. 
log  truck  used  in,  187. 

logging  with  wheeled  vehicles  in,  178,  181,  185. 
stumpage  values  in,  8,  11,  15. 
towing  log  rafts  to,  391. 
traction  engine  for  logging  in,  192. 
Camp,  blacksmith  shop,  60,  61. 
barns,  64. 
bunkhouse,  58,  61. 
car,  66. 

construction,  57,  63. 
cook  shanty,  58,  61,  62. 
furniture,  58. 
hygiene,  70. 
labor,  kitchen,  68. 
location,  56. 
rations,  69. 
sites,  56. 
store,  58,  6r,  62. 
storehouse,  59,  61. 
Camps,  board,  61. 

boarding  department  of,  67. 

character  and  cost  of.  Northeast,  58,  61,  424,  425. 
cooking  equipment  for  northern,  68. 
cypress,  66,  430. 
depreciation  of,  Colorado,  423. 
feeding  men  in,  cost  of,  69. 
floating,  66,  illustration,  67. 
hauling  supplies  to,  69. 
Lake  States,  426. 
log,  57,  illustrations,  59,  60. 
log  drive,  375. 
medical  care  in,  70,  71. 
Northwest,  432. 

portable  house,  6r,  illustration,  62. 
small  logging  operations  in,  Colorado,  421. 
southern  pine  region,  61,  428. 
stables  for,  59,  61  {see  barns), 
types  of,  57. 
West  Virginia,  434. 
Canada,  log  carrier  used  in,  359. 

log  drive  in  New  Brunswick,  381. 
log  driving  company  in  New  Brunswick,  369. 
log  sorting  device  used  in,  366. 
rafter  dam  used  in,  352. 
rafting  logs  in,  384. 
Canada  Lumberman  and  Woodworker,  369,  478. 


INDEX  553 

Canals,  pullboat  logging,  208. 
Cant  hook,  85,  189,  illustration,  85. 
Car  camp,  66. 
Carriers,  log,  358. 

Cars,  animal  draft,  for  hauling  earth,  267. 
box,  320. 

broad-gauge  railroad,  315. 
caboose,  320. 

capacity  of,  315,  317,  318,  319. 
chains  for,  316. 
flat,  315,  320,  321. 
frictional  resistance  of,  311. 
loading  logs  on,  by  cross-haul,  322. 

by  power  loaders,  322. 
by  special  devices,  329. 
logging  trucks,  318,  illustration,  319. 
mules,  320. 
narrow-gauge,  315. 

number  required  for  a  logging  operation,  319. 
pole  tram  road,  244,  245. 
skeleton,  317,  320,  illustration,  317. 
stakes  for,  315,  316,  334. 
stringer  railroad,  247. 
unloading  log,  ^:i2. 
water  tank,  320. 
Carter,  A.  M.,  on  boom  areas,  365. 
Carts,  log,  180. 

capacity  of,  185. 

cost  of,  185. 

high-wheeled.  Lake  States,  184,  426. 

Southern  yellow  pine,  182,  428. 
illustrations,  180,  181,  183. 
in  California,  182,  185. 
mule,  185. 
roads  for.  Lake  States,  184. 

Northwest,  184. 
slip  tongue,  183.  illustration,  183. 
two-wheeled  dump,  for  moving  earth,  265. 
Cary,  Austin,  Manual  for  Northern  Woodsmen,  112,  126,  470,  474. 
on  influence  of  lumbering  upon  forestry,  470. 
on  practical  forestry  on  a  spruce  tract  in  Maine,  105,  471,  477. 
Caterpillar  gasoline  tractor,  195. 
Cat-face,  124. 
Cedar,  incense,  8,  14,  i^. 

Port  Orford,  14. 
Cedars,  western,  associated  species  of,  8,  9,  10,  11,  14. 
lumber  cut,  19 10,  15. 
markets,  14. 
stand  of  timber,  4. 
stumpage  value  of,  14,  15. 
uses  of,  14. 
white,  floating  ability  of,  374. 
Chain  boom,  361. 

Chains,  equipment  for  a  log  wagon,  189. 
for  log  cars,  316,  317,  318. 
for  sleds,  171. 
Chamsecyparis  lawsoniana,  14. 
Chamaecyparis  nootkatensis,  14. 
Chamaecyparis  thyoides,  145. 
Channels,  artificial,  for  improving  stream  beds,  360,  illustration,  360, 


554  INDEX 

Chapman,  C.  S.,  on  a  working  plan  for  forest  lands  in  South  Carolina,  472. 
Chapman,  H.  H.,  on  an  experiment  in  logging  longleaf  pine,  472. 

on  prolonging  the  cut  of  southern  pine,  loi,  105. 
Checks,  125. 

spiral,  125. 
Cherry,  23. 

floating  ability  of,  374. 
Chestnut,  18,  20. 

floating  ability  of,  374. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  20. 

manufacture  of  tannin  extract  from  wood  of,  459. 
markets,  20. 
stand  per  acre,  20. 
stumpage  value  of,  20,  418. 
uses  of,  20. 
Chipping  boxes,  turpentine  orcharding,  445,  452. 
Chittenden,  Alfred  K.,  on  forest  conditions  in  northern  New  Hampshire,  471. 

on  the  red  gum,  23,  471. 
Chock  blocks  for  log  cars,  316,  317. 
Chokers,  150,  215,  216. 
Chutes,  149. 

cost  of,  241. 
curves,  238. 
grades,  236. 
Northeast,  425. 
Northwest,  433. 
pole,  233. 
timber,  230,  235. 
Clapp,  Earle  H.,  on  conversative  logging,  105,  477. 

Clark,  A.  W.,  on  overcoming  grades  too  steep  for  locomotives,  303,  473. 
Clark,  Judson  F.,  on  the  measurement  of  saw  logs,  126,  474. 
Clark's  International  log  rule,  109,  513. 
Climax  geared  locomotive,  306,  illustration,  306. 
Coastal  Plain  region,  animal  logging  in,  148. 
carts  for  logging  in,  180. 
hand  logging  in,  145. 
mule  carts  used  in,  185. 
power  logging  in,  196. 
rafting  logs  in,  387. 
Cole,  C.  O.,  on  electric  log  haulage,  221,  475. 
Colorado,  portable  mill  operations  in,  421. 

stumpage  values  in,  8. 
Columbia  River,  building  ocean  rafts  on,  390. 

rafting  logs  on,  368,  390. 
Commissary,  camp,  49,  62,  66,  67. 
Cone,  Baptist,  for  pullboat  logging,  212. 
Connecticut,  estimating  timber  in,  418. 

logging  methods  in,  419,  420. 
stumpage  values  in,  20,  418. 
Connecticut  River,  log  drive  on,  379,  380. 
Contract  labor,  49. 

Contract  prices  for  skidding  and  hauling  yellow  pine,  192. 
Cooper,  Albert  W.,  on  sugar  pine  and  western  yellow  pine  in  California,  472. 
Coppice,  best  season  for  cutting,  88. 
Cord,  forest  products  measured  by  the,  117. 

influence  of  the  degree  of  dryness  of  wood  on  cubic  contents  of  a,  116. 
ratio  between  cords  and  standards,  112. 

relation  between,  diameter  of  stick  and  the  solid  cubic  feet  in  a  cord,  115. 
form  of  sticks  and  solid  cubic  contents  in  a  cord,  116. 
Cord,  relation  between  stick  length  and  volume  of  wood  in  a  cord,  115. 


INDEX  555 


Cord  measure,  114. 

Corduroy,  for  logging  railroads,  284,  illustration,  285. 

lor  sled  roads,  165. 
Cordwood,  cutting  and  piling,  Connecticut,  419,  420. 

transport  in  flumes,  394,  400. 
Cornering  boxes,  turpentine  orcharding,  445. 
Corrals  lor  animals  in  camp,  66. 
Cost,  camps,  small  logging  operations,  421. 

clearing  a  railroad  right-of-way,  258,  259. 
construction,  flumes,  398,  408,  409. 
inchnes,  298. 

log  dump  for  unloading  log  cars,  336. 
logging  canals,  208. 
pole  tram  road,  244. 
railroad,  295. 

railroads  built  on  piling,  281. 
skid  road  for  a  road  engine,  220. 
stringer  railroad,  247. 
timber  shdes  and  chutes,  241. 
trestle  construction,  282. 
cribwork,  284. 
crossties,  2S6. 

cutting  and  piling  cordwood,  420. 
dams,  for  logging  operations,  351,  352. 
dunnage  or  dust  railroad,  284. 
feUing  timber,  Alaska,  437. 

Colorado,  421,  422. 
Connecticut,  419. 
cypress,  91,  43i- 
Lake  States,  427. 
Northwest,  91,  434. 
southern  yellow  pine,  91,  429. 
West  Virginia,  436. 
flat  cars,  315. 
fuel  for  locomotives,  312. 
harvesting  tanbark,  chestnut  oak,  463. 

hemlock,  461. 
hauling  logs  on  a  pole  tram  road,  245. 
loading  log  cars  with  a  crosshaul,  322. 
locomotives,  308,  309. 
log  driving,  380,  381. 

Connecticut  River,  380. 
Penobscot  River,  380. 
St.  John  River,  38T. 
Restigouche  River,  381. 
logging,  203,  204,  207. 
Alaska,  437. 
Colorado,  423. 
cypress,  431. 
Lake  States,  427. 
New  England,  420. 
Northeast,  158,  420,  425. 
Northwest,  433-  434- 
southern  yellow  pine  region,  429. 
West  Virginia,  436. 
moving  earth  and  rock,  262-268. 
oil  and  waste,  locomotive  operation,  3T4. 
operation,  flumes,  411. 
inclines,  303. 
power  log  loaders,  328. 


556  INDEX 

Cost,  pole  cutting  and  peeling,  Connecticut,  419. 
power  log  loaders,  325  -  328. 
rafting,  390,  391. 

steel  laying  and  removal,  290,  292. 
surfacing  a  railroad  grade,  295. 
yarding  engines,  214. 

Northwest,  433,  434. 
Cottonwood,  18. 

cross-cut  saws  for  cutting,  75. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  23. 
stumpage,  value  of,  23. 
uses  of,  2^. 
Crew,  backspiking  a  railroad  track,  293. 
bark  peeling,  435,  460,  461,  464. 
construction,  flume  in  Washington,  407. 
logging  dam,  Idaho,  352. 
ocean-going  rafts,  391. 
cutting  a  railroad  right-of-way,  257. 
felling  and  log  making,  Colorado,  421. 
floating  and  rafting  logs,  375,  379. 
loading  log  cars,  322. 
log  drive,  Connecticut  River,  379. 

Penobscot  River,  380. 
logging  operations,  Connecticut,  419. 
cypress,  430. 
Northeast,  424,  425. 
Northwest,  432,  433. 
West  Mrginia,  435. 
operation,  cableway  skidder,  203,  204. 
flume,  410. 
pullboat,  212,  213. 
road  engine,  219. 
snaking  system,  206,  207. 
yarding  engine,  215. 
rafting  logs,  Puget  Sound,  391. 
rigging,  cableway  skidder,  202. 
sorting  gap,  366. 

steel  laying  and  removal,  290,  292,  293. 
surfacing  a  railroad  grade,  295. 
Crews,  log  driving,  on  large  streams,  379,  380. 
Cribs  for  storage  booms,  364,  illustration,  363. 
Cribwork  for  a  logging  railroad,  284. 
Crook  in  logs,  96,  loi,  125. 
Crops,  turpentine  orchard,  size  of,  443. 

yield  of,  457. 
Crosshaul,  decking  logs  with  a,  141. 

gin-pole,  a  modification  of  the,  329. 
loading  log  cars  by,  322,  ;^^'d. 
sleds  by,  171. 
wagons  by,  190. 
Crossties,  286,  289. 

logging,  Connecticut,  419. 
stumpage  value  of,  Connecticut,  418. 
transport  in  flumes,  394,  405,  409. 
Crotch  in  logs,  125. 

sled,  155. 
Cubic  feet  stacked  in  logs  of  given  dimensions,  522. 
Cubic  measure,  114,  521,  522. 

volume  of  solid  wood  jn  stacks,  521. 

per  128  cubic  feet  of  space,  521. 


INDEX  557 


Cucumber,  23. 

floating  ability  of,  374. 
Culverts  for  logging  railroads,  285,  illustration,  279. 
Cumberland  River  log  drives,  per  cent  of  logs  lost  on,  345. 
Cummings,  W.  J.,  on  security  in  timber  bonds,  44,  476. 
Cup  systems,  turpentine  orcharding,  449. 

Gilmer-McCall,  454. 
Herty's  cup  and  gutter,  449. 
McKoy,  453. 
Curves,  flume,  395,  405. 

railroad,  252,  254,  256. 
slide,  238. 
Cuts  and  fills,  259  (see  also  fills  and  cuts). 
Cutting  areas,  timber  felling,  91. 
Cypress,  blasting  stumps  of,  277. 

cross-cut  saws  for  cutting,  75. 
deadening,  89. 
floating  ability  of,  374. 
girdling  (sec  deadening), 
insect  damage  to,  89. 
log  lengths,  97. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  12. 
stand  per  acre,  12. 
stand,  total  in  the  United  States,  4. 
stumpage  value  of,  12. 
uses  of,  12. 

yellow,  associated  species  of,  14,  17. 
stand  per  acre,  14. 
stumpage  value  of,  14. 
uses  of,  14. 
Cypress  region,  camps,  66,  67,  430. 

capacity  of  cableway  skidder  in,  203,  431. 
character  of  bottom,  430. 
cost  of  operation,  431. 
dunnage  or  dust  railroad,  283. 
felling  and  log-making,  430. 
hand  logging,  145,  430. 
labor,  47,  430. 

Louisiana,  wage  list,  533,  534. 
power  skidding,  196,  203,  208,  430. 
preparation  of  logs  for  puUboating,  211. 
pullboat  logging  in,  208,  430. 
rafting  in,  387. 
railroads  built  on  piling,  280. 
season  of  logging,  89,  43c. 
skidding,  430. 
transport,  431. 
Dsedalia,  12. 
Daedalia  vorax,  15. 
Dams,  logging,  character  of,  349. 
concrete,  349. 

construction  of,  350,  352,  353. 
cost  of,  351. 
crib,  350. 
pile,  353- 

rafter  or  self-loading,  352,  illustration,  353,  354. 
sites  for,  34S. 
Dana,  S.  T.,  on  the  paper  birch  in  the  Northeast,  23,  471. 
Deadening  timber,  89. 

cost,  cypress,  431. 


558  INDEX 

Decker  log  loader,  326. 
Decking  logs,  141. 

Defebaugh,  J.  E.,  on  the  history  of  the  lumber  industry  in  America,  470. 
Defects,  log,  96,  loi,  103,  121. 
butt  rot,  124. 
cat-face,  124. 
checks  and  seams,  125. 
circular  shake,  123. 
crook  or  sweep,  125. 
crotches,  125. 
pin-dote,  124. 
punk  knots,  124. 
rafting  pin  holes,  125. 
rotten  sap,  125. 
seams,  125. 
spiral  checks,  125. 

stained  sap,  125.  V 

stump  or  butt  rot,  124. 
sweep,  125. 

uniform  center  or  circular  rot,  121. 
Depreciation,  logging  equipment,  Northwest,  434. 
Dipping,  turpentine  orcharding,  447,  452. 

yield,  447. 
Distillation,  crude  turpentine,  455. 

cost  of  a  plant  for,  457. 
grades  of  rosin  produced,  457. 
labor,  456. 
method,  456. 
retorts  for,  455. 
strainers,  455. 
yield,  457 ■ 
Dog-warp,  use  in  breaking  log  jams  in  streams,  377. 
Dogs,  logging,  216. 
Douglas  fir,  {see  fir,  Douglas). 
Doyle  log  rule,  no,  517. 
Doyle-Scribner  log  rule,  in. 
Draft  power,  animal,  129. 
horses,  131. 
mules,  131. 
oxen,  129. 
Drift,  turpentine  orchard,  size  of,  443. 
Drill,  churn,  269. 
hand,  270. 
jumper,  270. 
Drilling  for  blasting  purposes,  269. 
Drive,  log,  an  alligator  for  towing  logs  on  a,  377. 
boom  companies,  369. 
conduct  of  a,  368,  378. 
Connecticut  River,  379. 
cost  of,  378,  380,  381. 
floating  and  rafting  logs,  343. 
head  works  for  towing  logs,  377. 
improvement  of  the  stream  bed  and  banks,  359. 
labor,  374. 

log  carriers  used  in  Canada,  359. 
log  jams,  377. 
Penobscot  River,  380. 
Drive,  log,  picking  rear,  377. 

requirements  for  a  drivable  stream,  347. 
St.  John  River,  New  Brunswick,  381,  384. 


INDEX  559 

Drive,  log,  season,  368,  379,  380. 

sorting  and  storage  facilities  for  a,  363. 

storage  reservoirs  for  water,  348. 

streams,  large,  379. 

streams,  small,  374,  375. 

trap  or  catch  booms  used  in  towing  logs,  377. 

union,  369. 

West  Virginia,  436. 
Drivers,  log,  374. 
Drumming,  150. 
Dudler  {see  Dudley). 
Dudley,  character  of,  301. 

operation  of,  221,  302,  303. 
Dump,  log,  334,  432,  illustrations,  335,  337. 
Dunnage  or  dust  railroad,  283,  illustration,  283. 
Dynamite,  blasting  stumps  with,  276. 

"breaking  down"  landings  with,  376. 

caps  for  firing,  273. 

care  of,  272. 

character  of,  272. 

electric  fuse  for  firing,  274. 

improvement  of  stream  bed  with,  359. 

loosening  earth  with,  264. 

"springing"  holes  with,  275. 

strength  of,  271. 

Earle,  Robert  T.,  on  the  gypsy  locomotive  for  logging  purposes,  321,  474. 
Earth,  classification  of,  for  excavation,  261. 
cost  of  moving,  262. 
"free  haul"  in  grading  contracts,  261. 
hauling  in,  cars,  animal  draft,  267. 
dump  carts,  265. 
dump  wagons,  265. 
drag  scrapers,  266. 
wheeled  scrapers,  266. 
increase  in  bulk  of  material  disturbed  for  removal,  262. 
loosening  earth  with  dynamite,  264. 
measurement  of,  260. 
movement  of,  260,  262. 
moving  with  a  steam  shovel,  268. 
pick  work  in,  263. 
plowing,  263. 

shrinkage  in  volume  in  an  embankment  of,  262. 
wheelbarrow  work,  264. 
Eckbo,  Nels  B.,  on  redwood  logging,  472. 
Electric  drive,  35. 

Electric  fuse  for  firing  dynamite,  274. 

Ellis,  L.  R.,  on  topographic  mapping  for  logging  purposes,  256,  474. 
Elm,  18. 

floating  ability,  374. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  22. 
stumpage  value,  22. 
uses,  22. 
Eminent  Domain,  right  of,  for  a  logging  railroad,  250. 
Endless  chain  saw,  79. 
Engine,  aerial  tramway,  223,  228. 

dudley,  221,  301. 
Engine,  duplex  logging,  217. 

road,  213,  218,  432,  433. 
traction,  caterpillar  gasoline,  195. 


560  INDEX 

Engine,  traction  for  hauling  log  wagons,  188. 
four-wheeled,  192. 
Holt  three-wheeled,  193. 
yarding,  213,  432- 
Engineer  Field  Manual,  296,  321,  469,  473,  474. 
Engineer's  Hand  Book,  473. 

Equipment,  railroad,  rolling  stock  and  motive  power,  319. 
snaking,  150,  illustration,  151. 
sorting  logs,  365. 
jack,  365. 
Estimate,  partial,  of  the  standing  timber  in  the  United  States,  545. 
Estimating  timber,  woodlots,  Connecticut,  418. 
Evans,  \V.  P.,  on  the  Mallet  Articulated  Locomotive,  321,  474. 
Evenson,  O.  J.,  on  a  log-loading  system,  339,  473. 
Expense,  general,  logging  operations,  cypress,  431. 

southern  yellow  pine,  429. 
sales.  Northwest,  434. 

West  Virginia,  436. 
Explosives,  for  hard  rock,  271. 
for  soft  rock,  271. 
high,  271. 
low,  275. 
Extract,  tanning,  chestnut  wood,  459. 
quebracho  wood,  459. 

Faggots,  use  of,  95. 

Fagus  americana,  20. 

Fall  of  a  tree,  determining  the  direction  of,  89. 

Fankhauser,  Dr.,  on  log  slides  in  the  Alps,  475. 

Fantalhng,  pullboat  logging,  208,  210. 

advantages  of,  210. 
illustration,  209. 
roads,  cost  of,  210. 

location  of,  210. 
Farquhar,  Henry  H.,  on  mountain  logging  in  West  Virginia,  434,  472. 
Fastabend,  John  A.,  on  ocean  log  rafting,  393,  478. 
Feed,  cost  of,  southern  pine  region,  429. 
Feeding  standards,  Wolff-Lehmann,  133. 

Feeding  stuffs,  dry  matter  and  digestible  food  ingredients  in,  134,  135. 
Fees  for  catching  runaway  logs,  346,  383. 
Felling  ax,  72. 
Felling  timber,  breakage  in,  90. 

cost  of,  91,  419,  421,  423,  427,  429-431,  434,  436,  437. 

crews  for,  90. 

cutting  areas,  91. 

direction  of  fall,  89. 

kerosene,  use  of,  86,  100. 

kilhig  or  sampson,  83. 

methods,  206,  421,  423,  424,  426,  428,  430,  432,  435. 
ax,  93. 
ax  and  saw,  93. 

notching,  92. 

power-driven  machines  for,  78. 

season,  87,  88,  421,  424,  426,  427,  430,  431,  434,  436. 

spring  boards,  83. 

wedges,  81. 
Fernow,  Bernhard  Eduard,  on  effect  of  turpentine  orcharding  on  the  timber  of 

longleaf  pine,  458,  476. 
Fills  and  cuts,  259. 

ratio  of  slope,  259. 


INDEX  56] 

Fills  and  cuts,  width  of,  259. 

Fin  boom,  361,  362,  illustration,  362. 

Fir,  alpine,  i6,  17. 

Douglas,  associated  species,  8,  10,  11,  14-  16. 
cross-cut  saws  for  cutting,  75. 
floating  ability  of,  374. 
log  grading  rules  for,  527. 
log  lengths,  gS,  120. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  6. 
markets,  6. 
stand  per  acre,  6. 

stand,  total,  in  the  United  States,  4. 
stumpage  value  of,  6. 
uses  of,  6. 
silver,  resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  76. 
western,  4. 

associated  species  of,  8,  9,  14,  15,  16. 
Fires,  forest,  25. 

crown,  25. 
ground,  25. 
surface,  25. 
Fisher,  Richard  T.,  on  the  redwood,  23. 
Fish  plates,  288,  289,  illustration,  288. 
Flat  cars  for  logging  purposes,  315,  320,  321. 
Floating  camps,  57,  66. 
Floating,  logs,  343,  425,  431,  432. 
Floating  and  rafting  logs,  Alaska,  437. 
cypress,  431. 
log  sluices,  400. 
loss  from,  345,  429. 
Northeast,  376,  425. 
Northwest,  432. 
uncommon  in  the  South,  428. 
West  Virginia,  436. 
Floods,  loss  of  logs  from,  345,  346. 
Florida,  stumpage  values  in,  541. 
Flume,  394,  477. 

Allen,  in  Montana,  404. 

amount  of  material  required  to  construct  a,  408,  409,  411,  413. 
amount  of  water  required  for  operation,  410. 
backbone  for  a,  396, 398. 
box,  399,  411,  illustration,  397. 
capacity  of  a,  39S,  400,  411  -413. 

clamps  for  fastening  boards,  when  made  into  bundles,  400. 
construction  of  a,  398-400,  405,  408,  409,  412,  413. 
curves  for  a,  395,  398,  405. 
disadvantages  of  transport  in  a,  394. 
grades  for  a,  398-400,  405,  409,  412,  413. 
location  of  a,  395. 
Northeast,  425. 
Northwest,  433. 
operation  of  a,  410,  412. 

terminals  for  a,  404,  405,  illustrations,  404,  406. 

trestles  for  a,  400,  401,  405,  407,  408,  412,  413,  illustrations,  402,  403. 
type  of  box  for  a,  396. 

V-box,  396,  398,  405,  409,  411,  413,  illustrations,  397,  399. 
Foley,  John,  on  lumbering  in  Tennessee,  471. 
Force,  tractive,  of  locomotives,  309,  310. 
Fore-and-aft  roads,  233,  234. 
Forest,  Deerlodge  National,  the  Allen  flume  in,  404. 


562  INDEX 

Forest,  Minnesota  National,  brush  burning  in,  28. 
Pilce  National,  stand  of  timber  in,  17. 
Sopris  National,  stand  of  timber  in,  17. 
Tongass  National,  17. 
Forest  area,  3. 
Forest  fires,  25. 
Forest  labor,  47. 
Forest  protection,  25,  469. 

Forest  regions,  natural,  of  the  United  States,  3,  illustration,  frontispiece. 
Forest  types,  3. 
Forests,  National,  log  rule  used  in,  no. 

logging  in  Colorado,  421. 
merchantable  timber  in,  4,  545. 

rule  for  measuring  length  of  long  logs  when  scaling  in,  120. 
rule  regulating  stump  heights  in,  95. 
stumpage  values  in,  6,  8,  14,  16,  17. 
private,  merchantable  timber  in,  4,  545. 
Forest  Service,  United  States,  26,  27,  122. 
Forked  trees,  waste  in  log-making,  loi. 

Forster,  G.  R.,  on  transport  of  forest  products,  229,  241,  469,  475. 
Foster,  H.  D.,  on  the  chestnut  oak  in  the  Appalachians,  23. 
Foster,  J.  H.,  on  forest  conditions  in  Louisiana,  472. 
Fox,  William  F.,  on  lumbering  in  New  York,  471. 
Fraxinus  americana,  22. 
Fraxinus  nigra,  22. 
Frog  for  a  logging  railroad,  290. 
Frothingham,  E.  H.,  on  the  aspens,  472. 

on  the  Douglas  iir,  23. 

on  second-growth  hardwoods  in  Connecticut,  41S,  471. 
Fuel,  coal,  193,  194,  313,  314- 

cost,  southern  pine  region,  429. 
for  logging  locomotives,  312-314. 
a  pullboat,  213. 

traction  engine,  193  -  195. 
yarding  engine,  217. 
wood,  193,  194,  213,  312,  314. 
Fuel  oil,  34,  195,  217,  313,  314. 
Fungi,  damage  to  timber  by,  88. 
Fuse,  electric,  for  firing  dynamite,  274. 

Gap,  sorting,  365,  379._ 

Gate,  sluice,  for  a  logging  dam,  354. 

barn-door,  358. 
bear-trap,  354. 
half-moon,  357. 
lift.  354- 

needle  or  bracket,  357. 
Gates,  log  flumes,  412. 
Gauge,  inclines,  301. 

narrow-,  246,  247,  249. 
railroad,  choice  of,  249. 
sled,  157,  159,  17s, 
standard-,  250. 
Gayer,  Karl,  on  forest  utilization,  76,  229,  241,  469,  470,  475. 
Geared  locomotives,  305. 

advantages  of,  305. 
center-shaft,  306. 
Climax,  306. 
hauling  ability  of,  312. 
Heisler,  306,  307,  321. 


INDEX  563 

Geared  locomotives,  Shay,  305,  308,  320,  321. 

Georgia,  stumpage  values  in,  541. 

Gerrish,  Scott,  first  builder  of  a  steel-rail  logging  railroad,  247. 

Gillette,  H.  P.,  on  cost  data,  270,  276,  296,  473. 

on  earthwork  and  its  cost,  256,  263  -  268,  296,  473. 
Gin-pole,  loading  log  cars  with  a,  329,  432. 
Girdling  timber,  89. 

Glover,  Geo.  T.,  inventor  of  first  steam  log  hauler,  172. 
Gobel  Cube  log  rule,  113. 
Go-devil,  155,  426,  illustration,  155. 
Goose-neck  or  scotch,  240. 
Grabs,  logging,  153,  216,  illustration,  151. 
Grades,  flume,  394,  395,  398,  399,  405,  409,  411,  413. 
incline,  297,  298,  300,  302. 

lumber,  per  cent  of,  manufactured  from  Sitka  spruce,  437. 
railroad,  246,  252,  254. 

resistance  to  gravity  on,  310. 
Grading,  logging  railroads,  259. 

cost  of  moving  earth  and  rock,  262. 
Grading  rules,  log,  for  Douglas  fir,  527. 

for  hardwood,  525. 
Grapples,  timber,  377. 

Graves,  Henry  S.,  on  forest  mensuration,  126,  474. 
forest  protection,  38,  469. 
handling  woodlands,  38,  469. 
practical  forestry  in  the  Adirondacks,  105. 
recent  log  rules,  474. 
Woodsman's  Handbook,  126,  474. 
Gravity,  resistance  of  the  load  to,  on  a  logging  railroad,  310. 
Great  Lakes,  booms  used  in  towing  logs  on,  382. 
log  barges  on,  392. 
season  for  transporting  logs  on,  368. 
towing  logs  on,  367. 
Greeley,  W.  B.,  on  the  white  oak  in  the  Appalachians,  24. 
Greenamyre,  H.  H.,  on  lumbering  in  Colorado,  472. 
Grimmer,  G.  Scott.,  on  log  driving  operations,  Canada,  369. 
Guards,  cattle,  on  a  logging  railroad,  286. 
Gum,  red,  18,  19. 

floating  abflity  of,  374. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  19. 
markets,  19. 
stand  per  acre,  19. 
stumpage  value  of,  19. 
uses  of,  19. 
Gumbo,  loosening  with  d>Tiamite  on  a  railroad  grade,  264. 

Half-moon  gate  for  a  logging  dam,  357. 

Hall,  William  L.,  on  the  uses  of  commercial  woods  of  the  United  States,  24,  470. 

Hallett,  W.  E.  S.,  on  lumbering  cottonwood  in  Nebraska,  472. 

Hamel,  G.,  on  logging  in  Wisconsin,  471. 

Handle,  ax,  73,  74. 

cant  hook,  85. 

maul,  83. 

peavey,  84. 

pickaroon,  86. 

saw,  74. 
Hand  logging,  145. 
Hand  logging,  Alaska,  436. 

Appalachians,  145. 
British  Columbia,  146. 


564  INDEX 

Hand  logging,  Coastal  Plain  region,  145. 
cypress,  145,  430. 
Pacific  Coast,  145. 
Hardwood,  damage  by  fungi,  88,  344. 

damage  by  insects,  87,  89,  344. 
floating  ability  of,  373,  374. 
log  lengths,  97. 

loss  in  water  transport,  344,  345. 
preparation  for  floating,  373. 
season  for  felling,  87,  88. 

strength  of,  influence  of  cutting  season  on,  88. 
Hardwood  log  grading  rules,  525. 

Hardwood  logging  with  wagons,  Mississippi  River  bottoms,  188. 
Hardwood  Record,  478. 

Harp,  C.  A.,  on  the  gasoline  locomotive  for  logging  roads,  321,  474. 
Hatt,  W.  Kendrick.,  on  the  red  gum,  23. 

Hauling,  140,  155,  178,  218,  242,  420,  423,  425,  427,  428,  431,  432,  435. 
number  of  daily  trips  of  given  length,  sleds,  172. 

wagons,  192. 
organization  of  crews,  wagon  haul,  191. 
with  a,  cart,  180. 

road  engine.  Pacific  Coast,  218. 
sled,  167,  170,  420,  422,  423,  425,  427. 
steam  log  hauler,  172. 
traction  engine,  192. 
wagon,  190. 
Hauling  ability  of  locomotives,  309,  311,  312. 
Hawes,  A.  F.,  on  forestry  in  New  England,  471. 
Hawley,  R.  C,  on  forestry  in  New  England,  471. 
Head  spar,  cableway  skidder,  196,  197. 
method  of  bracing  a,  198. 
steel,  197. 
Headworks,  for  towing  logs,  377,  379,  illustration,  378. 
Hedgecock,  George  Grant,  on  fungi  which  discolor  wood,  105,  470. 
Heisler  geared  locomotive,  307,  321,  illustration,  308. 
Hemlock,  eastern,  associated  species  of,  10,  13. 
bark,  thickness  of,  462. 

weight  per  square  foot,  463. 
yield  per  thousand  board  feet,  462. 
crew  for  bark  peeling,  460. 
cross-cut  saws  for  cutting,  75. 
floating  ability  of,  374. 
lumber  cut,  igio,  10. 
per  cent  of  tannin  in  bark  of,  459. 
season  for  bark  peeling,  435,  459. 
stumpage  value  of,  10. 
stand  per  acre,  10. 
stand,  total,  in  the  United  States,  4. 
uses  of,  10. 
western,  associated  species  of,  10,  11,  14. 
bark,  per  cent  of  tannin  in,  459. 

use  for  tanning,  459. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  10. 
markets,  10. 
stand  per  acre,  10. 
stand,  total,  in  the  United  States,  4. 
stumpage  value  of,  10. 
Hemlock,  western,  uses  of,  10. 

Henry,  H.  P.,  on  topographic  surveys  and  logging  plans,  256,  474. 
Hercules  log  unloader,  338. 


INDEX  565 

Herring  or  Beaumont  log  rule,  112. 

Herty,  Charles  Holmes.,  on  anew  method  of  turpentine  orcharding,  452,  476. 
on  light  chipping,  turpentine  orcharding,  445,  476. 
on  results  of  the  cup  and  gutter  system,  476. 
patentee,  449. 
Herty's  cup  and  gutter  system,  turpentine  orcharding,  449. 
Hickory,  18. 

floating  ability  of,  374. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  22. 
stand  per  acre,  21. 
stumpage  value  of,  22. 
uses  of,  21,  22. 
Hicoria  alba,  21. 
Hicoria  glabra,  21. 
Hicoria  laciniosa,  21. 
Hicoria  ovata,  21. 

Hine,  Thomas  W.,  on  duplex  logging  engine,  221,  475. 
Hoffman,  Bruce  E.,  on  Sitka  spruce  of  Alaska,  24,  436,  472. 
Holes,  for  stump  blasting,  276. 

loading  with  dynamite,  272. 
"springing,"  275. 
Holland  log  rule,  in. 

Holmes,  J.  S.,  on  disposal  of  brush  in  National  Forests,  38. 
Holt  three-wheeled  traction  engine,  193. 

Homans,  G.  M.,  on  the  standing  timber  owned  by  the  Federal  Government,  475. 
Hooks,  use  in  slide  operation,  239. 
Hopkins,  A.  D.,  on  pin-hole  injury  to  girdled  cypress,  89,  106,  470. 

on  waste  and  reduction  of  timber  supplies  caused  by  insects,  470. 
Horses,  advantages  of,  as  draft  animals  for  logging,  131. 
daily  output  when  snaking  logs,  154,  420. 
hauling  log  carts,  184,  185. 
hauling  log  wagons,  187,  191. 
miles  traveled  per  day  with  two-sleds,  172. 
picking  rear  with,  on  a  log  drive,  377. 
rations  for,  136,  137. 
regions  where  used,  131. 
trips  daily  for  given  distances,  172,  192. 
use  in,  cableway  logging,  202,  203. 

hauling  cars  on  pole  tram  roads  with,  245. 
operating  log  slides  with,  237. 
snaking  system,  207. 
West  Virginia,  434,  435- 
woodlot  logging.  New  England,  420. 
on  the  Pacific  Coast,  150. 

small  operations,  Colorado,  423. 
value,  131. 

water  requirements,  138. 
weight  for  logging  purposes,  131. 
Hosmer,  Ralph  S.,  on  a  forest  working  plan  for  Township  40,  471. 
Hough,  F.  B.,  on  statistics  of  forest  products  used  in  tanning,  466,  476. 
Hydraulic  machines  for  inclines,  299. 
Hygiene,  camp,  66,  70. 

Idaho,  a  log  flume  in,  398. 

log  slides  in,  230. 

pole  tram  roads  in,  244,  245. 

stumpage  values  in,  10. 
Idaho,  wage  list,  531,  532- 

Improvement  of  stream  bed  and  banks,  359,  379. 
Inclines,  cables  for,  297-300,  302. 


566  INDEX 

Inclines,  capacity,  298,  300. 
character,  297,  300. 
cost  of,  298. 
dudleys  for,  221,  301. 
hydraulic  lowering  device  for,  298. 
length  of,  297. 
lowering  cars  on,  300. 
operation  of,  297,  299  -  302. 
power  for,  297  -  299.  301. 
snubbing  machines  for,  298,  illustration,  300. 
West  Virginia,  435. 
where  used,  297. 
Indiana,  stumpage  values  in,  19,  22,  23. 
Industries,  minor,  439. 
Inland  Empire,  bummers  used  in,  178. 
carts  used  in,  181. 
floating  and  rafting  logs  in,  343. 
log  wagons  used  in,  187. 
slides  used  in,  230. 
Insect  damage,  cj^press,  89. 

felled  timber,  87. 
Insurance,  standing  timber,  36. 

Canada,  37. 
Europe,  36. 
International  log  rule,  Clark's,  109,  121,  122,  513. 

Ives,  J.  F.,  on  fuel  oil  as  a  substitute  for  wood  and  coal  in  logging,  321,  474. 
on  the  use  of  compressed  air  in  logging,  321,  474. 

Jacks,  loading,  330,  432. 

Jack  works  for  loading  logs  on  cars,  331. 

Jams,  log,  on  streams,  376,  377,  379. 

Jammers,  horse,  171. 

Jepson,  W.  L.,  on  the  California  tanbark  oak,  465,  466,  476. 

Johnson,  J.  B.,  on  surveying,  256,  296,  473. 

Jones,  A.  P.,  on  accountants,  relation  to  timber  bond  issues,  44,  476. 

Journals,  lumber  trade,  478. 

Juglans  nigra,  23. 

Jumbo  sled,  159,  427. 

Juniperus  virginiana,  17. 

Kalb,  Henry  A.,  on  the  use  of  compressed  air  in  snubbing  logs,  221,  475. 
Kellogg,  R.  S.,  on  the  original  forests,  476. 

on  the  timber  supply  of  the  United  States,  3. 
Kentucky,  legal  fee  for  catching  stray  logs  in,  346. 

stumpage  values  in,  18. 
Kerosene,  use  of  in  felling  timber,  86. 
Kettenring,  F.  A.,  a  flume  trestle  designed  by,  409. 
Key  log  in  a  Jam,  374. 
Kilhig  or  sampson,  83,  illustration,  84. 
Kirsch,  Simon.,  on  the  origin  and  development  of  resin  canals  in  the  coniferas, 

445,  458,  477- 
Knots,  96,  103,  525-527. 

Labor,  47. 

amount  required  to  construct  flume  trestles,  408. 

camp  hygiene,  70. 

camps  for,  56. 

character,  48. 

construction  crew  on  a  flume  in  Washington,  407. 

contract,  49. 


INDEX  567 

Labor,  cost,  on  an  incline  operation,  298. 
crew  for  flume  operation,  410. 

crews  for  power  logging,  203,  204   206,  207,  212,  213,  215. 
factors  which  influence  wages,  50. 
felling  crews,  90,  419,  422,  424,  426,  428,  430,  432,  435. 
forest,  47. 

length  of  employment,  47. 
log  driving,  374. 

logging  operations,  Colorado,  421. 
cypress,  430. 
Lake  States,  426. 
New  England,  419. 
Northeast,  424. 
Northwest,  431. 
Southern  pine  region,  427. 
West  Virginia,  434. 
medical  attention  for,  70. 
method  of  employment  and  payment  of,  48. 
organization  of,  51. 
tanbark  harvesting,  460,  461,  464. 
turpentine  orcharding,  444-449,  451,  452,  454,  456. 
unions,  50,  71. 
Lacey,  J.  D.,  on  the  science  of  timber  valuation,  44,  476. 
Lake  States,  boom  companies  in,  369. 
camps,  426. 

carts,  log,  use  of,  181,  182,  184,  185. 
dams,  pile,  use  of,  353. 
equipment,  cars  and  locomotives,  used  on  a  white  pine  operation  in, 

320. 
feUing,  time  of,  87,  426. 
feUing  and  log-making,  426. 
felling  crews,  organization  of,  90. 
labor,  426. 

loaders,  power,  for  sleds,  171. 
log  barges  in,  392. 
logs,  per  cent  lost  on  drives,  345. 
raising  sunken,  392. 

season  in  which  they  are  transported  by  water,  368. 
logging,  cost  of,  427. 

season  of,  426. 
machinery,  introduction  of  power  skidding,  196. 
skidding  in  the,  426. 
sleds,  season  for  hauling  on,  167. 
sluices,  log,  400,  401. 
steam  log  haulers  used  in,  174. 
stumpage  values  in,  9,  21,  539,  540. 
topography  and  bottom,  426. 
transportation,  427. 
unloaders,  power  log  car,  334. 
unloading  log  cars,  method  of,  :i^^. 
vehicles,  use  of  wheeled,  178. 
wage  list,  532. 
Landings,  "breaking  down,"  375. 

for  loading  log  cars  by  a  gin-pole,  329. 
for  loading  log  cars  by  jacks  or  peavies,  330. 
for  water  transport,  143. 
Langworthy,  C.  P.,  on  horse  feeding,  136,  138,  469. 
Larch,  floating  ability  of,  374. 
Larch,  resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  76. 
western,  associated  species  of,  9,  14,  17. 


568  INDEX 

Larix  americana,  17. 
Larix  occidentalis,  9,  14,  17. 

Lauderburn,  D.  E.,  on  the  elimination  of  waste  in  logging,  477. 
Laws,  federal  regulations  regarding  floating  logs  on  navigable  streams,  381. 
providing  penalty  for  stealing  logs,  346. 
regulating  fees  for  catching  stray  logs,  346. 
Lengths,  log,  97. 

Lake  States,  426. 
Northeast,  98,  424. 
Northwest,  98,  432. 
South,  97.  428. 
Libocedrus  decurrens,  14. 
Limber  boom,  363,  377. 
Liquidambar  styraciflua,  19. 
Lizard,  156. 
Loaders,  horse,  171. 

power,  322,  436. 

Barnhart,  323. 
capacity  of,  328. 
cost  of,  325-328. 
Decker,  326,  illustration,  326. 
gin-pole,  329. 

McGiffert,  327,  illustration,  327. 
Model  "C"  American,  325,  illustration,  324. 
Model  "D"  American,  326. 
operation  of,  323,  327-329. 
placing  logs  in  flumes  with,  410. 
Rapid,  326,  illustration,  325. 
Surry  Parker,  328. 
types,  323. 

unloading  log  cars  with,  334. 
Loading,  cost  of,  322,  328,  427,  429,  431,  436. 
from  water  storage,  330. 
hand, 170. 
jack  works  for,  331. 
jammers,  171. 
power,  171,  322. 
special  devices  for,  329. 
with  a  cableway  skidder,  202. 
a  cross  haul,  171,  190,  322. 
a  gin-pole,  329. 

a  snaking  system  skidder,  207. 
jacks  or  peavies,  330. 
Loading,  holes  with  dynamite,  272. 

logging  cars,  322,  illustration,  322. 
sleds,  170. 

wagons,  190,  illustration,  igi. 
logs  into  flumes,  410. 
Location,  flumes,  395. 

railroads,  251. 
Locomotive,  dragging  logs  on  the  Pacific  Coast  with,  220. 
dudley,  221,  301. 

for  a  dunnage  or  dust  railroad,  284. 
for  logging  purposes,  245,  247,  304,  432, 
frictional  resistance  of  a,  311., 
fuel  for  a,  312. 
geared,  247,  305. 
hauling  ability  of  a,  309,  312. 
illustrations,  306,  308,  309. 
Locomotive,  light  geared,  for  a  pole  tram  road,  245. 


INDEX  569 


Locomotive,  light  geared,  for  a  stringer  road,  247. 
Mallet  articulated,  304. 
resistance,  frictional,  311. 

to  gravity,  310. 
rod,  304. 
saddle-tank,  304. 
tractive  force  of  a,  309. 
water  for  a,  314. 
weight  of,  for  logging,  304. 
Locomotives,  number  required  on  a  logging  operation,  319-321. 
Log  barge,  392. 
Log  brands,  370-372. 
Log  carriers,  358. 
Log  cars,  loading,  322. 

unloading,  332. 
Log  carts,  180. 
Log  decking,  crew  for,  141. 

equipment  for,  141. 
methods,  141. 
Log  defects,  cat-face,  124. 

checks  and  seams,  125. 
circular  shake,  123. 
crook,  or  sweep,  125. 
crotches,  125. 
pin-dote,  124. 
pin  holes,  rafting,  125. 
punk  knots,  124. 
rot,  butt,  124. 

rot,  uniform  center  or  circular,  121. 
sap,  rotten,  125. 
sap,  stained,  125. 
seams,  125. 
sweep,  125. 
Log  drivers,  374,  375,  illustration,  376. 

Log  dump,  for  unloading  log  cars,  334,  432,  illustrations,  335,  337. 
Log  grades,  125,  525. 
Log  grading  rules,  Douglas  fir,  527. 

hardwood,  525. 
Log  haulers,  steam,  172,  425,  427. 

capacity  of,  176,  177. 
character  of,  173. 
cost  of,  174. 
fuel  for,  174. 
illustration,  173. 
operation,  176. 
roads  for,  174. 

sleds  for,  175,  illustration,  175. 
speed  of,  1 74. 
Log,  key,  374. 

Log  lengths,  97,  119,  424,  426,  428,  432. 
Log  loaders,  power,  322,  illustrations,  324-327. 
Log-making,  bole,  extent  of  utilization,  95. 
Colorado,  421,  423,. 
cutting  logs  for  quality,  103. 
cypress,  430. 
equipment  for,  100. 
kerosene,  use  of,  86. 
log  lengths,  97,  119,  424,  426,  428,  432. 
Lake  States,  426. 
measuring  sticks  used  in,  84. 


570  INDEX 

Log-making,  methods,  98. 

Northeast,  424. 
Northwest,  432,  434. 
power  bucking,  79,  100. 
season  of,  87. 
southern  yellow  pine,  428. 
trimming  lengths  of  logs,  102. 
undercutters,  86. 
waste  in,  loi. 
wedges  for,  81. 
West  Virginia,  435. 
Log  marks,  365,  370,  illustration,  371. 
Log  rules,  108. 

Clark's  International,  109,  513. 
Doyle,  no,  517. 
Doyle-Scribner,  in. 
factors  on  which  they  are  based,  109. 
Gobel  cube,  113. 
Herring  or  Beaumont,  112. 
legal  ones  in  different  states,  no,  in. 
Maine  or  Holland,  in. 
New  Hampshire  or  Blodgett,  113,  520. 
Nineteen-inch  Standard,  112,  519. 
Scribner,  no,  514. 
Log  sluices,  394,  400. 

boxes  for,  400. 
cost  of,  409. 
Log  sorting  and  storage,  363. 

Log  storage,  in  artificial  ponds  for  flume  transport,  410. 
loading  logs  from  water,  330. 
roUways  for  dry,  334. 
water,  332. 
Logs,  floating  and  rafting,  343. 

advantages  of  rafting  on  streams,  381. 
cost  of,  380,  381. 
disadvantages  of,  343. 
labor  employed  in,  374. 

laws  regulating  fees  for  catching  stray  logs,  346. 
length  of  logs  for  rafting,  97. 
log  jams,  377,  379- 
loss  attendant  on,  344,  345. 
management  of  log  drives,  368. 
rafting  on  the  ocean,  390. 
rafting  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  389. 
rafting  on  streams,  381. 
rafting  works,  367. 
storage  and  sorting  facilities,  363. 
stranded  logs,  liability  of  owner  for  damage  by,  345. 
theft  of  logs  on  Pacific  Coast,  346. 
preparation  for  pullboat  logging,  212. 
"prize,"  ownership  of,  372. 
sorting,  365,  379. 
sunken,  392. 

transport  in  flumes,  394,  398,  399,  404,  410,  411,  413. 
transport  of  long,  97. 
value  of,  Alaska,  437. 
Logging,  hand,  145,  436. 

period  of,  421,  424,  426,  427,  430,  431,  434,  436. 
power  for,  196,  475. 
road  engine  for,  218. 


INDEX  571 

Logging,  summary  of  methods  in  specific  regions,  415. 
terms  used  in,  481. 

topography  ancl  bottom,  424,  426,  428,  430,  432,  435. 
Logging  camps,  56,  421,  424,  426,  428,  430,  432,  434. 
Logging  costs,  192,  203,  204,  423,  425,  427,  429,  431,  433,  434,  436,  437. 
Logging  labor,  47,  419,  424,  426,  427,  430,  431,  434. 
Logging  inchnes,  297. 

Logging  methods,  214,  217,  41S,  421,  424,  426,  427,  430,  431,  434,  436,  47i- 
Logging  railroads,  242. 
Logging  roads  in  Colorado,  423. 

Lombard,  0.  A.,  inventor  of  first  successful  steam  log  hauler,  172. 
Louisiana,  bummers,  use  in,  178. 

clearing  a  railroad  right-of-way  in,  258. 
dunnage  or  dust  railroads  in,  28^. 
moving  earth  and  rock  in,  262. 
piling  road  in  a  cypress  swamp  in,  280. 
pullboating  in  cypress  swamps  in,  208. 
stumpage  values  in,  8,  541. 
Lumber,  amount  recjuired  to  construct  flume  trestles,  408,  412,  413. 
price  of,  average  retail,  Sitka  spruce  in  Alaska,  438. 
thickness  of,  108. 

transport  in  flumes,  394,  396,  398,  399,  405,  409,  410. 
value,  sale,  of  southern  yellow  pine,  429. 
Lumber,  Lath  and  Shingles,  1910,  470. 
Lumber  manufacture,  cost  of,  429,  436,  437. 
Lumbermen,  attitude  towards  turpentine  orcharding,  442. 
Lumber  Trade  Journal,  478. 
Lumber  trade  journals,  478. 
Lumber  World  Review,  478. 

MacLafferty,  T.  H.,  on  handling  log  trains  on  steep  grades,  303,  473. 

Magnolia  acuminata,  23. 

Maine,  log  brands  and  marks  used  in,  371. 

log  drive  on  the  Penobscot  River  in,  380. 
paper  birch,  preparation  for  floating  in,  373. 
steam  log  hauler,  one  season's  haul  with  a,  176. 
stumpage  values  in,  13,  21. 
Maine  or  Holland  log  rule,  iii. 

Maintenance-of-\vay,  logging  railroad,  244,  247,  295. 
Mallet  articulated  locomotive,  304. 
Manual,  The  National  Forest,  470. 
Manual  for  Northern  Woodsmen,  112,  522. 
Manufacture,  lumber,  cost  of,  429,  436,  437. 
Maple,  black,  19. 
hard,  19. 

associated  species  of,  13,  20. 
floating  ability  of,  374. 
Oregon,  19. 

resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  76. 
silver,  19. 
sugar,  18. 
Margolin,  Louis.,  on  hand  logging,  154. 
Marks,  log,  365,  370,  illustration,  371. 
bark,  370. 
"catch,"  370. 
"dehorning,"  372. 
legal  status  of,  372. 
recording,  372. 
Maryland,  stumpage  values  in,  22. 
Maiils,  82,  illustration,  153. 


572  INDEX 

Maxwell,  Hu.,  on  the  commercial  woods  of  the  United  States,  24,  470. 
McGiffert  log  loader,  327. 
McGrath,  T.  S.,  on  timber  bonds,  44,  476. 
Measure,  board,  107. 
cord,  114. 

cubic,  107,  113,  114. 
Measurement,  acid  wood,  107. 
crossties,  107. 
excelsior  wood,  107,  117. 
firewood,  107,  117. 
hoop  poles,  107. 
lumber,  108. 
mine  timber,  107. 
novelty  wood,  107. 
poles,  107. 
posts,  107. 

pulpwood,  107,  113,  117. 
shingle  bolts,  107. 
spool  wood,  107. 
stave  bolts,  107,  117. 
units  of,  107. 
Measuring  stick  for  log-making,  84. 
Medical  attention,  logging  camps,  70. 

Mereen,  J.  D.,  on  the  use  of  electricity  in  logging  operations,  221,  475. 
Methods,  logging  (see  logging  methods). 
Metric  system,  107. 

Michigan,  railroad,  the  first  logging,  in  the  United  States,  247. 
stumpage  values  in,  9,  19,  20,  22,  539. 
sunken  logs,  raising,  392. 
value  of,  393. 
Miller,  Udo.,  on  the  measurement  of  wood,  115. 
Mine  timbers,  transport  in  flumes,  394,  396,  410,  412,  413. 
Minnesota,  log  marks,  validity  of,  372. 

stumpage  values  in,  539,  540. 
surveyor-general,  rights  and  duties  of,  370,  372. 
Minnesota  National  Forest,  28. 
Minor  industries,  439. 
Mississippi,  stumpage  values  in,  23,  541. 
Mississippi  River,  boom  companies  on,  369. 
log  marks  used  on,  371. 
logs  lost  on  drives,  per  cent  of,  345. 
sawing  season  on,  344. 
Missouri,  railroad  equipment  used  on  a  logging  operation  in,  320. 
Mohr.  Charles.,  on  the  naval  stores  industry,  458,  477. 

on  the  timber  pines  of  southern  United  States,  24,  458. 
Montana,  flume  operation,  crew  required  for,  410. 
flume  terminals  used  in,  404. 
incline  operated  in,  298. 
log  wagon  used  in,  187. 
logs  lost  in  drives,  per  cent  of,  345. 
slides  used  in,  230. 
wage  list,  531. 
Morrell,  F.  W.,  on  factors  influencing  logging  and  lumbering  costs  in  Colorado, 

470. 
Motive  power  required  on  logging  railroads,  319. 
Mud  sills  for  dams,  350. 
Mule  cart,  185. 

Mules,  advantages  as  a  draft  animal  for  logging  purposes,  131. 
daily  output  when  snaking  logs,  154. 
hauling  logs  cart  with,  184,  185. 


INDEX  573 

Mules,  hauling  log  wagons  with,  187,  191. 

power  logging,  use  in,  207. 

rations  for,  136,  137. 

water  requirements,  138. 

weight  for  logging  purposes,  132. 

value  of,  132. 
Munger,  T.  T.,  on  the  growth  and  management  of  Douglas  fir,  28. 

Nails,  amount  required  to  construct  flume  trestles,  408,  409,  412,  413. 
Narrow-gauge  railroad,  advantages  of,  249. 
cars  for  a,  315. 
width  of  grade  for  a,  259. 
National  Forest,  the  Deerlodge,  a  flume  in,  404. 

Tongass,  cost  of  logging  in,  437. 
National  Forests,  portable  mill  operations  in,  417,  421. 
stumpage  values  in,  6,  8,  14,  16,  17. 
Needle  or  bracket  gate  for  a  logging  dam,  357. 
Nestos,  R.  R.,  on  an  aerial  snubbing  device,  303,  473. 
New  Brunswick,  log  driving  in,  38 1,  384. 

log  driving  companies  in,  369,  381. 
log  sorting  device  used  in,  366. 
rafting  logs  in,  384. 
New  England,  logging  methods  on  portable  mill  operations,  417,  418. 
New  Hampshire,  log  drive  in,  379,  380. 
New  Hampshire  or  Blodgett  log  rule,  113,  520. 
Newby,  F.  E.,  on  a  gravity  cable  system,  229,  469. 
NewHn,  J.  A.,  on  the  commercial  hickories,  23,  471. 
New  York,  flumes  in,  398,  400. 

log  slides  in,  230. 

snaking  logs  with  animals  in,  148. 

snaking  logs  with  power  in,  424. 

stumpage  values  in,  13,  19,  20,  21. 
New  York  Lumber  Trade  Journal,  478. 
Nineteen-inch  Standard  log  rule,  112,  519. 
Nitro-glycerine,  use  in  dynamite,  272. 
North  Carolina,  power  logging  in,  196. 
Northeast,  cableway  skidders  used  in,  203,  424. 

camps,  logging,  58,  424. 

chutes  used  in,  236. 

crews,  felling  in,  91,  424. 

dam,  rafter,  in  the  Adirondacks,  352. 

felling  and  log-making  in,  87,  424. 

flumes  in  New  York,  398,  400. 

kilhig  used  in,  83. 

labor,  48,  374,  424. 

length  of  logs  cut  in,  98. 

loading  sleds,  hand  method  in,  170. 

log  driving  in,  345,  368,  369,  379,  380. 

log  haulers,  steam,  used  in,  172. 

log  sluices  in,  400. 

mauls  used  in,  82. 

period  of  logging  in,  424. 

portable  mill  operations  in,  417-420. 

rossing  logs,  104,  424. 

skidding  methods  in,  424. 

sleds  and  sled  hauling  in,  155,  157,  159,  172. 

sleds,  season  for  hauling  on,  167. 

snaking  with  animals,  146. 

topography  and  bottom  in,  424. 

transportation,  424. 


574  INDEX 

Northwest,  aenal  tramways  in,  223,  224. 

ax  handles  used  in,  73. 

barking  logs,  104. 

camps,  62,  66,  432. 

chutes,  235. 

cost  of  logging  in,  433,  434. 

cost  of  railroad  construction  In,  259,  262,  281,  295,  434. 

dudley,  hauling  with  a,  221,  301. 

equipment,  cars  and  locomotives,  for  a  logging  operation,  321. 

feUing  and  log-making  in,  87,  91,  93,  94,  100,  432. 

floating  and  rafting  logs  in,  343. 

fuel  used  on  locomotives,  314. 

hand  logging  in,  145. 

incline  in  Oregon,  operation  of,  302. 

labor,  47-So>  53.  9i,  215-  219,  431- 

log  lengths,  98. 

log-making,  99. 

log  slides,  230. 

logging,  period  of,  87,  431. 

logging  trucks,  318. 

logging  with  power  skidders,  203,  204,  208,  213,  432. 

medical  attention  in  camps,  70. 

notching,  93. 

pole  tram  roads,  245. 

power  bucking,  100. 

rafting  on  Pacific  Ocean,  390. 

rafting  on  Puget  Sound,  389. 

saws  used  in,  74. 

slides,  log,  230. 

spring  boards,  83. 

stump  heights,  94. 

topography  and  bottom,  432. 

traction  engines  for  hauling,  192. 

transport,  432. 

trucks,  logging,  31 8. 

undercutter  used  in,  86. 

unloaders,  power,  used  in,  334. 

unloading  log  cars,  ^SS- 

wage  list,  534. 

wheeled  vehicles  used  in,  178,  181. 

yarding  logs,  213,  432. 
Notching,  92. 
Nyssa  aquatica,  23. 

Oak,  black,  per  cent  of  tannin  in  bark  of,  459. 
chestnut,  harvesting  the  tanbark  of,  463. 

per  cent  of  tannin  in  bark  of,  459. 
floating  ability  of,  373,  374. 
red,  18,  19. 

lumber  cut,  1910,  19. 
per  cent  of  tannin  in  bark  of,  459. 
stumpage  value  of,  19,  418. 
uses  of,  18. 
resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  76. 
Spanish,  per  cent  of  tannin  in  bark  of,  459. 
stumpage  value  of,  18,  19,  418. 
tanbark,  associated  species  of,  11. 
harvesting,  464. 

per  cent  of  tannin  in  bark  of,  459. 
yield  of  bark,  465. 


INDEX  575 

Oak,  white,  cross-cut  saws  for  cutting,  75. 

per  cent  of  tannin  in  bark  of,  459. 
stumpage  value  of,  18,  41S. 
uses  of,  1 8. 
Ocean,  raft  building  on,  390. 

season  in  which  logs  are  transported  on,  368. 
O'Gorman,  J.  S.,  on  unloading  log  cars,  339,  473. 
O'Hearne,  James.,  on  tilting  log  dumps,  339,  473. 
Ohio,  stumpage  values  in,  22. 
Ohio  River,  floating  logs  on,  370. 

loss  of  logs  on  a  drive  on,  346. 
rafting  logs  on,  383. 
Oil  for  a  logging  locomotive,  daily  cost  of,  314. 
Orcharding,  turpentine,  441. 
Oregon,  a  flume  in,  411. 

an  incline  in,  operation  of,  302. 
Ownership  of  private  timberlands,  546. 
Oxen,  advantages  of,  1 29. 

daily  output  when  snaking  logs,  154. 
hauling  wagons  with,  187,  188. 
rations  for,  137. 

regions  in  which  used,  130,  150. 
value  of,  131. 

Pacific  Coast  {see  Northwest). 

Paper  Trade  Journal,  478. 

Peavey,  84,  376,  377,  illustration,  85. 

Peed,  W.  W.,  on  the  logging  engineer  in  logging  operations,  256,  474. 

on  logging  redwood,  472. 
Pennsylvania,  animal  snaking  in,  148. 

gates  for  logging  dams,  357,  358. 
legal  fee  for  catching  logs  that  are  adrift,  346. 
log  slides  in,  230. 

per  cent  of  logs  lost  on  drives  in,  345. 
stumpage  values  in,  22. 
Peters,  J.  Girvin.,  on  the  standing  timber  owned  by  the  States,  476. 

on  waste  in  logging  southern  yellow  pine,  106,  477. 
Picea  canadensis,  13. 
Picea  mariana,  13. 
Picea  rubra,  13. 
Picea  sitchensis,  14. 
Pickaroon,  86,  410. 
Pick  rear,  377,  379- 

Pick  work  in  earth,  output  per  hour,  263. 
Pier  dams,  359. 
Pike  poles,  376. 

Pinchot,  Gifford.,  on  a  new  method  of  turpentine  orcharding,  458,  477. 
Pin-dote,  124. 
Pin  holes,  rafting,  125. 
Pine,  Cuban,  442. 

eastern  white,  cross-cut  saws  for  cutting,  75. 
floating  ability  of,  374. 
log  lengths,  98,  426. 

logs,  sunken,  value  of,  in  Michigan,  393. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  9. 
stand  per  acre,  9. 

stand,  total,  in  the  United  States,  4. 
storage  capacity  of  one  acre  of  water,  365. 
stumpage  value  of,  9,  539,  540. 
uses  of,  9. 


576  INDEX 

Pine,  loblolly,  4,  6,  442. 

for  turpentine  orcharding,  442. 
lodgepole,  associated  species  of,  17. 

felling  and  log-making  in  Colorado,  422. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  16. 
markets,  16. 
stand  per  acre,  16. 
stand,  total,  in  the  United  States,  4. 
stumpage  value  of,  16. 
uses  of,  15. 
longleaf,  4,  6,  95,  442,  476. 
Norway,  4,  17. 
pitch,  441. 
rosemary,  441. 

scotch,  resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  76. 
shortleaf,  4,  6,  95,  442. 
southern  yellow,  blasting  stumps  of,  276. 

cross-cut  saws  for  cutting,  75. 
floating  ability  of,  374. 
log  lengths,  97. 

logs  lost  on  drives,  per  cent  of,  345. 
lumber  cut,  191 1,  8. 
markets,  7. 
rafting,  383,  384. 
species  of,  6. 
stand  per  acre,  7,8. 
stand,  total,  in  the  United  States,  4. 
storage  capacity  of  one  acre  of  water,  365. 
stump  heights,  94. 
stumpage  values  of,  8,  541. 
uses  of,  7. 
sugar,  4. 

associated  species,  8,  15. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  15. 
markets,  15. 
stand  per  acre,  15. 
stand,  total,  in  the  United  States,  4. 
stumpage  value  of,  15. 
uses  of,  15. 
western  white,  associated  species  of,  9,  15. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  9. 
markets,  9. 
stand  per  acre,  9. 
stumpage  value  of,  9. 
western  yellow,  associated  species  of,  8,  15,  17. 
lumber  cut,  19 10,  8. 
markets,  8. 
stand  per  acre,  8. 

stand,  total,  in  the  United  States,  4. 
stumpage  value  of,  8. 
Pinus  contorta,  15. 
Pinus  echinata,  6,  441. 
Pinus  heterophylla,  442. 
Pinus  lambertiana,  15. 
Pinus  monticola,  9. 
Pinus  palustris,  6,  442. 
Pinus  ponderosa,  8. 
Pinus  rigida.  441. 
Pinus  strobus,  9. 
Pioneer  Western  Lumberman,  478. 


INDEX  577 


Pitch,  96. 

Platanus  occidentalis,  23. 

Plowing  earth,  output  per  hour,  263. 

Plug  boom,  361. 

Plummer,  Fred  G.,  on  forest  fires,  38,  469. 

Pockets,  rafting,  389. 

Pole  railroad,  242. 

cars  for  a,  244. 
character  of  road,  242. 
constructing  a  right-of-way  for,  242. 
construction,  cost  of,  244. 
grades,  242. 
maintenance  of,  244. 
Poles,  chestnut,  stumpage  value  in  Connecticut,  418. 
felling  and  peeling,  419. 
pike,  376. 
rafting,  383. 
Polleys,  E.  G.,  on  an  Idaho  lumbering  operation,  472. 
Poplar,  floating  ability,  374. 

resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  76. 
yellow,  cross-cut  saws  for  cutting,  75. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  18. 
stumpage  value  of,  18. 
uses  of,  18. 
Portable  house,  camp,  61. 

cost,  63,  illustration,  62. 
loading  on  a  car  with  animals,  63. 
loading  on  a  car  with  power,  63. 
material  required  for  construction  of,  63. 
Portable  mill  operations,  417. 
Potter,  171. 

Potter,  E.  O.,  on  the  cable  locomotive,  303,  473. 
Powder,  black,  275. 

Power,  for  aerial  tramway,  223-225,  228. 
cableway  system,  199. 
inclines,  297-299,  301. 
a  road  engine,  218. 
slack-rope  system,  208,  213,  217. 
snaking  system,  204. 
felling  machine,  78. 
Power  log  loaders,  322. 

log-making  machine,  79. 
skidding,  196. 

cableway  system,  ig6. 
first  patent  on  machinery  for,  196. 
slack-rope  system,  208,  430. 
snaking  system,  204. 
Pratt,  C.  S.,  on  workmen's  compensation  acts,  55. 
Primers  and  priming  for  dynamite,  273. 
Protection,  forest  property,  25. 
Prunus  serotina,  23. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia,  5. 
Puget  Sound,  rafting  on,  368. 

rafting  works  on,  368. 
season  for  transporting  logs  on,  368. 
Pullboat,  canals  for,  208. 

"fantailing,"  208,  illustrations,  209,  210. 
Louisiana  swamps,  operation  in,  196,  208,  430. 
operation  of,  208,  430. 
skidding,  preparation  of  logs  for,  211,  212. 


578  INDEX 

Pulpwood,  peeling,  105,  424. 

transport  in  flumes,  394,  398,  399,  404,  410. 
Punk  knots,  124. 
Puppies  for  pullboat  logging,  212. 

Quebracho  wood  for  tanning,  459. 
Quercus  alba,  18. 

densiflora,  11,  88,  459. 

prinus,  88,  459. 

Raft  bundles,  367,  3S7. 
Rafting,  343,  381. 

advantage  of,  on  streams,  381. 
charges  for,  Canada,  381. 
Coastal  Plain  region,  367,  387. 
cypress  region,  213,  387,  430,  431. 
Great  Lakes,  382. 
Mississippi  River,  385. 
New  Brunswick,  384,  illustration,  384. 
Northeast,  425. 
Northwest,  432. 
Ohio  River,  383. 
Pacific  Coast,  389. 
Pacific  Ocean,  390. 
southern  streams,  383,  384,  430. 
Rafting  dogs,  383,  illustration,  ^S^. 
pockets,  368,  389. 
poles,  383. 
works,  367,  368. 
Rafts,  Coastal  Plain  region,  367,  387,  illustration,  388. 
cypress  region,  213,  387,  431,  illustration,  387. 
ocean-going,  368,  390. 
Rafts  fastened  with  poles,  383. 
on  the  Great  Lakes,  367. 

Mississippi  River,  385,  illustration,  382,  385,  386. 
Pacific  Coast,  389. 
Puget  Sound, 368. 
Railroad,  advantages  of  rail  transport,  248. 

amount  of  supplies  required  to  build  one  mile  of  track,  2t 

angle  bars  for  a  track,  288. 

cars  required  on  a  logging  operation,  319. 

cattle  guards  for,  286. 

chartered,  250. 

choice  of  gauge  for  a,  249. 

construction  of  a,  257-259,  295,  427,  429,  431,  434,  436. 

cribwork  for  a,  284. 

crossties  for  a,  286,  2S9. 

culverts  for,  285,  illustration,  279. 

dunnage  or  dust,  283,  431. 

fish  plates  for,  288. 

forest,  242. 

grades  for,  242,  246,  252,  254. 

inclines,  297. 

incorporation  of,  250. 

location  of,  206,  214,  251. 

locomotives,  304. 

maintenance-of-way,  295. 

mileage  in  operation,  247. 

motive  power  for,  304,  319. 

piling  for,  280. 


INDEX  579 

Railroad,  pole  road,  242,  illustrations,  243,  244. 
rail  fastenings  for,  288. 
right-of-way  for  a,  250. 
roadbed  for  a  spur,  260,  illustration,  260. 
spikes  for,  288. 
straps  for  rails,  288. 
steel  laying  and  removal,  290. 
steel  rail,  the  first,  247. 
steel  rails  for  a,  287,  289. 
stringer,  245,  435,  illustration,  246. 
Railroad  operation,  cypress,  431. 

Lake  States,  427. 
Northeast,  425. 
Northwest,  434. 
South,  428,  429. 
West  Virginia,  435,  436. 
Railroad  spurs,  253-255,  257,  258,  260,  283,  284,  287,  288,  291,  295. 
Rails,  elevation  of,  294,  illustration,  294. 
guard,  290,  illustration,  289. 
incline,  297,  298,  302. 
on  log  cars,  log  loader  operation,  315,  323. 
resistance  of,  to  friction,  311. 
steel,  287,  289. 
stringer  road,  247. 
weight  of,  287. 
Raking,  turpentine  orcharding,  448. 

Rankin,  R.  L.,  on  topographic  surveys  for  a  logging  railroad,  256. 
Rapid  log  loader,  326. 
Rations,  animal,  calculation  of,  135. 
elements  of,  132. 
feeding  standards,  133. 
feeding  stuffs,  134,  135,  137. 
quantities  fed,  136,  137. 
water  requirements,  138. 
weight  of  feeding  stuffs,  per  quart,  137. 
men,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  69. 
Maine  logging  camp,  69. 
Record,  Samuel  J.,  on  forest  fire  insurance,  38,  469. 

on  suggestions  to  woodlot  owners,  24. 
Redwood,  associated  species  of,  11,  14. 
cross-cut  saws  for  cutting,  75. 
floating  ability  of,  374. 
log  car  unloading  device,  339. 
log  lengths,  98. 

logging  with  a  duplex  engine,  217. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  11. 
markets,  11. 
rossing  logs,  105. 
stand  per  acre,  11. 
stand,  total,  in  the  United  States,  4. 
stumpage  value  of,  11. 
uses  of,  II. 
Reed,  Franklin  W.,  on  a  working  plan  for  forest  lands  in  Central  Alabama,  472. 
Reservoirs,  storage,  for  log  driving,  348. 

watershed  area  required  for,  348. 
Resistance,  frictional,  on  a  locomotive  haul,  309,  311. 
Restigouche  River,  New  Brunswick,  log  driving  on,  381. 
Rights,  timber,  251. 

Right-of-way  for  a  railroad,  242,  246,  257-259,  283. 
Riparian  owners,  legal  complications  with,  on  log  drives,  345. 


580  INDEX 

Road  engine,  213,  218,  432,  433. 
Roads,  cart,  184. 

dunnage  or  dust,  283. 
fore-and-aft  pole,  233. 
pole  rail,  242. 
pullboat,  209,  431. 
rail,  242. 
road  engine,  219. 
skid,  149. 
skipper,  148,  435. 
sled,  bridges  for,  166. 
breaking  out,  170. 
maintenance  of,  167,  169. 
rutter  for,  167,  168. 
snow  plow  for,  167,  16S. 
snow  sheds  for,  166,  illustration,  167. 
sprinkler  for,  167,  16S. 
two-sled,  162,  425. 
yarding  sled,  161. 
stringer  rail,  245. 
traction  engine,  192,  195. 
wagon,  190. 
yarding  engine,  214. 
Robertson,  J.  E.,  on  the  log  flume,  413,  477. 
Rock,  blasting,  269. 

classification  of,  261,  269. 
excavation  of,  269. 

"free  haul"  in  grading  contracts,  261. 
increase  in  bulk  when  broken  up,  269. 
measurement  of,  260. 
movement  of,  260-262,  269. 
ratio  of  slope  for  fills  and  cuts,  259. 
Rod  locomotives,  304,  320,  321. 
Rolling  stoc'c  for  a  logging  railroad,  319. 
RoUways  for  unloading  log  cars,  ^^2,  illustration,  ^;^2. 
Rosin,  markets,  457. 

production,  441. 
value,  458. 
Ross,  Kenneth.,  on  logging  b\'  rail  in  Montana,  472. 
Rossing  or  barking  logs,  104,  424. 
Rot,  stump  or  butt,  124. 

Rothkugel,  Max.,  on  the  management  of  spruce  and  hemlock  lands  in  West  Vir- 
ginia, 472. 
Rules,  log  (see  log  rules). 
Runs,  for  cableway  skidder,  201. 

for  pullboat  logging,  209,  431. 
for  slack-rope  skidder,  214,  215. 
Russell,  C.  W.,  on  the  use  of  compressed  air  on  logging  trucks,  321,  474. 
Rutter  for  a  sled  road,  167,  168. 

Sack  boom,  382. 

Sackett,  H.  S.,  on  timber  bonds,  44,  476. 
Saddle-tank  locomotive,  304,  312. 

St.  John  River,  New  Brunswick,  log  driving  and   rafting  on,  381,  384,  illustra- 
tion, 364. 
St.  Louis  Lumberman,  478. 
Sales  expense  for  logs,  Northwest,  434. 
Sampson  or  kilhig,  83. 
Sap,  rotten,  125. 
stained,  125. 


INDEX  581 

Sargent,  Charles  S.,  on  the  forests  of  North  America,  459. 
Saw,  cross-cut,  bevel  of,  77,  illustration,  7S. 
blade  of  a,  74. 
cost  of  a,  74. 

handle  for  a,  74,  illustration,  7.,. 
life  ol  a,  78. 

resistance  of  wood  in  cutting  with  a,  76. 
teeth  of  a,  75,  illustration,  76. 
endless  chain,  79,  illustration,  So. 
felling  timber  with  a,  93,  419,  421,  424,  42S,  430. 
Saw  files,  77. 
Saw  fitting,  77. 
Saw-fitting  tools,  77. 
Scaling,  log,  117,  474- 

allowance  for  defects  in,  121. 
by  the  surveyor-general  of  Minnesota,  370. 
check  scahng,  119. 
cost  of,  119,  434. 
defective  logs,  121. 
methods,  118,  119. 
objects  of,  117,  120. 
on  National  Forests,  120. 
re-scaling,  119. 
tools  for,  117,  118. 
Schenck,  C.  A.,  on  logging,  463,  470. 
Scotch  or  goose-neck  for  log  slides,  240. 
Scrapers,  drag,  for  moving  earth,  266. 

wheeled,  for  moving  earth,  266. 
Scraping,  turpentine  orcharding.  448. 
Scribner  log  rule,  no,  514. 
Seams  in  logs,  125. 

Season  for  towing  logs  on  the  Ocean,  392. 
Section  crews,  logging  railroad,  295. 
Sequoia  sempervirens,  10. 
Sequoia  Washingtoniana,  11. 
Sessoms,  H.  W.,  on  logging  camp  records,  470. 
Shake  in  logs,  circular,  123. 

Shay,  E.  E.,  first  constructor  of  a  geared  locomotive,  305. 
Shay  locomotive,  308,  312,  314,  320,  321,  illustration,  309. 
Sheep-shank  boom,  361. 

Shields,  R.  W.,  on  logging  in  the  Dismal  Swamp,  471. 
Shingle  bolt  transport,  aerial  tram,  228. 

in  flumes,  394,  398,  399- 
Shoveling  earth,  output  per  hour,  263. 
Shovels,  steam,  for  moving  earth,  268. 
Sitka  spruce,  14,  17,  437. 
Skeleton  log  cars,  317,  320. 
Skidding,  140,  146. 

bummer  haul,  179. 
carts,  184. 

contract  prices  for,  192,  420. 

cost  of,  192,  420,  423,  425,  427,  429,  431,  433,  434,  436,  437. 
illustration,  147. 
Skidding  methods,  Alaska,  436. 

cypress  region,  430. 

L.ake  States,  426. 

Northeast,  424. 

Northwest,  431. 

power,  196,  424,  427,  428,  430.  43-^  435.  436. 

simplification  of,  by  felling,  90. 


582  INDEX 

Skidding  methods,  small  operations,  420,  422. 

southern  yellow  pine,  179,  180,  428. 
trails,  14S,  iDustrations,  147,  148. 
wagon  haul,  190. 
West  Virginia,  435. 
yarding  engine,  213,  432-434,  436. 
Skid  roads,  149,  219. 

Skids,  balanced,  for  loading  aerial  tram  trolleys,  223. 
cross,  for  an  incline,  302. 
fender,  timber  slide,  230. 
hardwood,  for  log  wagon,  189. 
Skid  ways,  140. 

capacity,  142. 
construction,  140,  143,  144. 
decking  logs  on,  141. 
for  dry  land  storage  at  a  sawmill,  334. 
for  a  railroad  haul,  143,  257. 
sled  haul,  140. 
wagon  haul,  143,  191. 
illustration,  142. 
sites  for,  142,  143,  191,  257. 
Skipper,  grab,  153,  illustration,  153. 
Skipper  road,  West  Virginia,  435,  illustrations,  148,  152. 
Skippers,  148. 

Slack  puller,  cableway  skidder,  199,  200. 
Slack-rope  power  logging,  196,  208,  432,  436. 
Sledge,  82. 
Sleds,  155. 

bob,  158. 
chains  for,  171. 
for  a  steam  log  hauler,  175. 
go-devil,  155. 

hauling  with,  155,  170,  420,  423,  424,  427. 
jumbo,  159. 
,   lizard,  156. 
loading,  171. 

roads  for,  161,  162,  illustrations,  163,  165. 
scoot,  420. 

season  for  hauling  with,  167. 
two-sled,  159,  162,  425,  427,  illustration,  160. 
yarding,  157,  161,  425,  illustration,  157. 
Slides,  log,  bibliography,  475. 
cost  of,  241. 
curves  on,  238. 
earth,  230. 
grades,  236,  237. 
illustrations,  231  -  235,  238-  240. 
Northeast,  425. 
Northwest,  433- 
operation  of,  238. 
running,  236. 
speed,  checking  on,  240. 
timber,  230,  231. 
■'trail,"  230. 
West  Virginia,  435. 
where  built,  230. 
Sluice  gates,  logging  dams,  354,  illustrations,  354-357- 
Sluices,  log,  394,  400,  401. 

Smith,  Herbert  Knox.,  on  the  stand  of  timber,  476. 
Snaking,  animal,  146,  180,  184,  190,  420,  422,  425,  426,  428,  435. 


INDEX  583 


Snaking,  animal,  crews,  154. 

drumming,  150. 
equipment  for,  150. 

output,  daily,  for  horses  and  mules,  154,  425. 
trails  for,  148,  illustration,  147. 
power,  196,  204,  205,  208,  424,  428,  430,  432,  435. 
animals  for  hauling  cable,  207. 
capacity  of  machines,  207. 
crews,  206,  207,  illustration,  205. 
operation  of  machines,  205,  207,  208,  213. 
portable  machines  for,  205. 
pullboats  for,  208. 
Sniping  logs,  105,  211,  431. 
Snow  plow  for  a  sled  road,  167,  168,  170. 
Snow  shed  for  a  sled  road,  166,  illustration,  167. 
Snubbing  machine  for  inclines,  298. 

Somerville,  S.  S.,  on  building  logging  railroads,  296,  473. 
Sopris  National  Forest,  stumpage  values  in,  17. 
Sorting  gap,  365,  illustrations,  366,  367. 
Sorting  logs,  363,  365,  379. 
South,  bummers,  use  of,  178. 

carts  and  cart  roads,  181,  184. 

cars,  logging,  required  on  a  logging  operation,  320,  321. 

contract  prices,  logging,  192. 

cost  of,  fuel  for  locomotives,  314. 

railroad  construction,  258,  262,  295. 
equipment  for  a  log  wagon,  189. 
logging  with,  animals,  154. 
bummers,  178. 
carts,  180. 
lizards,  156. 

power  skidders,  196,  206,  208,  428. 
wagons,  185. 
wheeled  vehicles,  178. 
motive  power  used  on  an  operation,  320,  321. 
operations,  logging,  cypress,  430. 

portable  mill,  417. 
southern  yellow  pine,  427. 
rafting  in,  383,  384,  387. 
railroad  right-of-way  in,  251,  257. 
season  for  transporting  logs  by  water  in,  368. 
unloading  log  cars,  332. 
Southern  Industrial  and  Lumber  Review,  478. 
Southern  Lumberman,  478. 
Southern  Lumber  Journal,  478. 
Southern  pine  region,  camps,  62,  64,  70,  71,  428. 

contract  price  for  skidding  and  hauling,  192. 

felling  and  log-making,  91,  97,  428. 

hauling,  178,  428. 

labor,  48,  91,  427,  533. 

logging,  equipment,  178,  180,  183,  185,  189. 

portable  mill  operations,  417. 

power,  196,  203,  206. 

railroads,  257,  258,  262,  428. 

rolling  stock  for,  320,  321. 

season  of,  427. 

skidding,  428. 

topography  and  bottom,  428. 

transport,  428. 

unloading  log  cars,  S33- 


584  INDEX 

Southern  yellow  pine,  stumpage  value  of,  8,  541. 
Southwest,  brush  disposal  in,  26. 

Southwest,  use  of  wheeled  vehicles  for  logging  in,  178,  181. 
Spark  arrester,  30. 

boomerang,  ^^,  illustration,  ^^. 
Radley-Hunter,  ^2,  illustration,  34. 
Sequoia,  30,  illustration,  31. 
South  Bend,  31,  illustration,  31. 
spark  cap,  32,  illustration,  32. 
Spaulding,  V.  M.,  on  the  white  pine,  24. 
Spenser,  F.  F.,  on  logging  in  California,  472. 
Spikes,  railroad,  288,  289. 
Spring  board,  83,  illustration,  83. 
Sprinkler  for  a  sled  road,  167,  168,  illustration,  169. 
Spruce,  black,  13. 

eastern,  associated  species  of,  13. 

cross-cut  saws  for  cutting,  75. 
floating  abihtyof,  374. 
log  lengths,  98. 

logs  lost  on  drives,  per  cent  of,  345. 
lumber  cut,  1910,  13. 
markets,  13. 
rossing  logs  of,  105. 
stand  per  acre,  13. 
stand,  total,  in  the  United  States,  4. 
storage  capacity  of  one  acre  of  water,  365. 
stumpage  value  of,  13. 
uses  of,  13. 
Englemann,  17,  422. 
log  lengths,  98. 
red,  13. 

resistance  offered  to  cutting  with  a  cross-cut  saw,  76. 
Sitka,  14,  17. 

lumber  grades  manufactured  from,  437. 
price,  average  retail,  of  lumber  in  Alaska,  438. 
western,  lumber  cut,  1910,  17. 
markets,  17. 
stand  per  acre,  17. 
stand,  total,  in  the  United  States,  4. 
stumpage  value  of,  17. 
uses  of,  17. 
white,  13. 
Spur,  logging  railroad  [see  railroad  spurs.) 
Stakes,  log  car,  long,  316. 

patent  drop,  316,  317. 
short,  315. 
Standards,  relation  between  cords  and,  112. 
Standard-gauge  railroad,  249,  250. 

cars  for,  315. 
Standard  log  lengths,  119. 
Starbird,  W.  D.,  on  flumes,  413,  477. 
Steel,  Francis,  R.,  on  flumes,  395,  396,  413,  477. 
Steel  laying  and  removal,  railroad,  290. 
Steinbus,  Ferdinand,  on  aerial  tramways,  229,  469. 
Stephen,  John  W.,  on  lopping  branches  on  logging  operations,  470. 
Stimson,  Charles  W.,  on  power  logging  in  iir  timber,  475. 
Storage  and  sorting  facilities,  log,  363. 
Storage  booms,  364,  365. 
Storage  sites  for  logs,  140,  191,  257,  330,  331. 
Storehouse,  camp,  59-61. 


INDEX  585 


Storms,  influence  on  transport  of  timber,  by  water,  368. 
loss  of  logs  by,  when  floated  and  rafted,  345. 
loss  of  timber  by  wind,  37. 
Straps  for  steel  rails,  28S,  289,  illustration,  288. 
Stream  bed  and  banks,  abutments  for,  360. 

artificial  channels,  360. 
booms,  360,  37Q. 
improvement  of,  359. 
pier  dams,  359. 
Streams,  drivable,  requirements  for  a,  347. 
driving  logs,  on  large,  379. 
on  small,  375. 
floatable,  347. 
jams,  log,  on,  377,  379. 
navigable,  347. 
Stringer  railroad,  245. 

cars  for,  247. 
character,  246. 
construction  of,  247. 
grades  on,  246. 
maintenance  of,  247. 
rails  for,  246. 
West  Virginia,  435. 
Stump  or  butt  rot,  124. 
Stumps,  blasting,  276. 
height  of,  94. 
removal  of,  258. 
waste  in  cutting  high,  94. 
Stumpage  values,  6,  8-  23,  442,  539-541- 
Sudworth,  Geo.  B.,  on  conservative  turpentining,  458,  477. 
Summary  of  logging  methods,  415. 
Sunken  logs,_  344,  392. 
Surfacing  railroads,  294. 
Surry  Parker  log  loader,  328. 
Surveyor-general,  Minnesota,  370,  372. 
Susquehanna  River,  loss  of  logs  by  floods  on,  345. 
Swamping,  72,  98,  180,  184,  190,  211,  214,  215,  419,  422,  429,  435. 
Sweep,  logs,  125. 
Switch,  railroad,  290,  illustration,  289. 

slide,  233. 
Sycamore,  23. 

floating  ability  of,  374. 

Tail  tree,  cableway  skidder,  196  -  198,  illustration,  198. 

pullboat,  210. 
Tamping,  explosives  in  a  drill  hole,  274. 

material  for,  275. 
Tanbark,  bibliography,  476. 

harvesting,  435,  459. 

season  in  which  timber  is  peeled,  88,  435,  459,  463,  464. 

species  from  which  secured,  88,  459. 

supply,  source  of,  459. 

thickness  of  bark,  462,  463. 

transportation  of,  461,  465. 

weight  of  hemlock,  463. 

yield,  chestnut  oak,  464. 
hemlock,  462. 
tanbark  oak,  465. 
Taxodium  distichum,  11. 
Team  boss,  duties  of,  191. 


586  INDEX 

Tennessee,  aerial  tram  in,  222. 
Tennessee,  stumpage  values  in,  18. 
Tennessee  river,  logs  lost  on  drives  on,  345. 
Terminals,  log  flume,  404. 
Terms  used  in  logging,  481. 
Texas,  cableway  skidder  in,  203. 
stumpage  values  in,  541. 
Thompson,  Jas.  R.,  on  the  use  of  electricity  in  logging,  221,  475. 
Thuya  plicata,  9,  14. 
Tiemann,  H.  D.,  on  the  log  scale,  113,  126,  474. 

on  loss  in  log  scale  due  to  center  rot,  122. 
Tilia  americana,  21. 
Timber,  deadening,  89,  430,  431. 

felling  {see  felling  timber), 
loss  by  storms,  37. 

loss  through  turpentine  orcharding,  442. 
mine,  transport  in  flumes,  394,  396,  410. 
ownership  in  the  United  States,  4,  5,  546. 
right-of-way,  uses  for,  258. 
stand  of,  by  species,  4,  6-22. 
stand,  total,  in  the  United  States,  3,  4,  475,  545- 
Timber  bonds,  39,  476. 

Timber  estimating,  woodlots  of  Connecticut,  418. 
Timber  rights,  251. 
Timber  slides  and  chutes,  {see  Slides). 
Timber  work  for  a  railroad  grade,  278. 

Timberlands  in  the  United  States,  private  ownership  of,  546. 
The  Timberman,  223,  281,  299,  305,  312,  330,  334,  478. 
Tongass  National  Forest,  logging  in,  437. 

stumpage  values  in,  17. 
Tongs,  for  animal  skidding,  152,  illustration,  151. 

for  pullboat  skidding,  212. 
Topography  in  various  forest  regions,  424,  426,  428,  432,  435. 
Towing  rafts,  cypress,  431. 

Pacific  Coast,  390. 
Pacific  Ocean,  391,  392. 
Towing  booms,  360,  367,  382,  389. 
Traction  engine,  caterpillar  gasoline  tractor,  195. 
four-wheeled,  192. 
hauling  log  wagons  with,  188. 
Holt  three-wheeled,  193,  illustration,  194. 
Tractive  force  of  locomotives,  309. 
Tractor,  caterpillar  gasoline,  195. 

Tracy,  John  Clinton,  on  plane  surveying,  256,  296,  473. 
Tramways,  aerial,  222,  433,  435. 

capacity  of,  223  -  225,  228. 
endless  cable,  228. 
gravity,  222. 

illustrations,  224,  225,  227. 
single-wire,  222-225. 
Transport,  rail,  242,  304,  425,  427,  428,  430,  432,  435. 
advantages  of,  248. 
sled,  155,  170,  172. 
steam  log  hauler,  172. 
traction  engines,  192. 
water,  341. 

alligator  for  towing  logs,  377,  379' 
boom  companies,  369. 

liability  of,  369. 
conduct  of  drives,  368. 


INDEX  587 

Transport,  water,  cypress  region,  431. 

disadvantages  of,  343. 
drives,  log,  368,  374,  375,  379- 
flumes,  394. 

hardwood  logs,  preparing  for,  373. 
headworks  for  towing  logs,  377,  379. 
in  the  Northeast,  425. 
in  the  Northwest,  432. 
in  West  Virginia,  436. 
labor,  374. 
log  barges,  392. 

log  storage  and  sorting  facilities,  363. 
loss  of  logs  attending,  344,  345,  346. 
on  the  Pacific  Coast,  389. 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  390. 
rafting  works,  367. 
season  for,  368. 
sorting  equipment,  365. 
species  that  will  float,  372. 
Trautwine,  on  amount  of  work  performed  with  a  churn  drill,  270. 

on  evaporation  of  water  in  locomotives,  314. 
Travois,  155. 

Trestle,  construction  of,  278,  281. 
cost  of,  282. 

flume,  400,  401,  405,  408. 
for  a  railroad  grade,  278. 
framed,  281. 
illustrations,  279,  282. 
pile,  278. 
Trestle  bent,  278. 
Trolley,  for  an  aerial  tramway,  223,  225  -  227. 

for  a  cableway  skidder,  198. 
Trucks,  log,  3i8_. 
Tsuga  canadensis,  9,  459. 
Tsuga  heterophylla,  9,  459. 
Tupelo,  23. 

Turney,  Harry.,  on  air  brake  equipment  for  logging  trucks,  321,  474. 
Turnout,  for  a  logging  railroad,  290,  illustration,  289. 
Turpentine,  markets  for,  457. 

production  in  19 11,  441- 
value  of,  458. 
Turpentine,  crude,  distillation  of,  455. 
Turpentine  orcharding,  441. 

attitude  of  lumbermen  towards,  442. 
bibliography  of,  476. 
box  system,  chipping,  445. 
cornering,  445. 
cutting  boxes,  444. 
dipping,  447. 
cost  of  operation,  443-445,  447,  448,  45i>  452,  454,  457- 
cup  system,  Gilmer-McCall,  454. 

Herty's   cup   and   gutter,   449,    illustrations, 

450-452. 
McKoy,  453.  illustration,  453. 
lease  value  of  a  "crop,"  443. 
loss  of  timber  from,  442. 
method  of  operation,  443. 
number  of  receptacles  per  tree,  444. 
raking,  448. 
scraping,  448. 


588  INDEX 

Turpentine  orcharding,  size  of  tree  worked,  444. 

species  worked,  441. 

yield  per  "crop,"  457. 
Two-sled,  binding  chains  for,  171. 
capacity,  172. 
character,  159. 
cost,  161. 
dimensions,  159. 
loading,  170. 
roads  for  a,  162. 

Ulmus  americana,  22. 

Ulmus  pubescens,  22. 

Ulmus  racemosa,  22. 

Undercut,  felling,  92,  illustration,  92. 

Undercutters,  86,  illustration,  86. 

Uniform  center  or  circular  rot,  121. 

cull  table  for,  123. 
method  of  discounting  for,  121,  122. 
Unions,  labor,  50,  71. 

Unloaders,  power,  for  log  cars,  334.  *- 

Unloading  log  cars,  332. 

cableway  system,  334. 

hand  methods,  S33- 

Hercules  log  unloader,  338. 

log  dump,  334. 

power  unloaders,  334. 

special  device  for,  339. 
Unloading  log  wagons,  191. 
Upson,  A.  T.,  on  waste  in  logging  and  milling,  477. 

Value,  sale,  yellow  pine  lumber,  429. 

Van  Orsdel,  John  P.,  on  cableway  loading  system,  339,  473. 

on  topographic  surveys,  256,  474. 
\'ehicles,  wheeled,  178. 

bummers,  178. 
hauling  with,  190. 
log  carts,  180. 
mule  carts,  185. 
roads  for,  184,  190. 
two- wheeled,  178. 
wagons,  185. 

eight- wheeled,  188. 
equipment  for,  189. 
four-wheeled,  1S6. 
six- wheeled,  188. 
Vermont,  wage  list,  534. 
Virginia,  harvesting  tanbark  in,  463. 

stumpage  values  in,  8,  22,  541. 
Von  Almburg,  Dr.  F.  Angenholzer.,  on  transport  of  logs  in  slides,  241,  475. 
Von  Schrenck,  Hermann.,  on  the  bluing  and  red  rot  of  the  western  j-ellow  pine, 
106,  470. 

Wage  lists,  529. 

Arkansas,  533. 

cjpress  region,  Louisiana,  533. 

Lake  States,  532. 

Montana  and  Idaho,  531. 

Ontario,  Canada,  534. 

Pacific  Coast,  534. 


INDEX  589 


Wage  lists,  southern  pine  region,  Texas,  533. 

Vermont,  534- 
Wages,  log  drivers,  375. 

portable  mill  operations,  Connecticut,  419. 
small  operations,  Colorado,  421. 
Wagons,  185.  ,  ,      ,.         •  ,      o^ 

cost  of  loadmg  and  haulmg  with,  ibb. 
dump,  for  moving  earth,  265. 
eight-wheeled,  18S,  428,  illustration,  189. 
equipment  for,  189. 

four-wheeled,  186,  428,  illustration,  186. 
mule-carts,  185. 

on  southern  pine  operations,  428. 
portable  woodlot  work,  in  Cennecticut,  4^0- 
six-wheeled,  188,  428. 
traction  engines  for  hauling,  192. 
Walnut,  black,  23. 

Wanigan,  375-  ,  .      ,         ,  ^  -u       ^ 

Washington,  legal  fee  for  catching  logs  that  are  adrift,  346. 
log  dump  used  in,  334. 
pihng  railroad  in,  281. 
V-flume  built  in,  405. 
Waste,  daily  cost  of,  for  a  logging  locomotive,  314- 
Waste  in  log-making,  loi,  illustrations,  102,  103. 
Wastell,  A.  B.,  on  a  logging  camp  on  wheels,  471. 
Water,  amount  consumed  by  logging  locomotives,  314- 
amount  required  for  flume  operation,  410,  411. 
Water  tank  cars,  320. 
Water  transport,  {sec  transport,  water). 
Wedges,  81,  illustration,  81. 
Weight,  logging  locomotives,  304,  3^5 >  307,  308. 

steel  rails,  287. 
Weigle,  W.  G.,  on  the  aspens,  472. 
Wentworth,  G.  K.,  on  a  logging  incline,  303,  473- 
West  Coast  Lumberman,  478. 
West  Virginia,  camps,  434- 

cost  of  logging,  436. 
felling  and  log-making,  435. 
labor,  434.  J  -r         ^ 

legal  fees  for  collecting  logs  that  are  adrift,  346. 
mountain  logging  in,  434. 
period  of  logging,  434. 
skidding,  435- 
stumpage  values  in,  13. 
topography  and  bottom,  435. 
transportation,  435. 
value  of  oak  tanbark  in,  463. 
Western  Lumberman,  478. 

Western  yellow  pine,  8,  {sec  pine,  western  yellow). 
Wheelbarrows,  moving  earth  with,  264. 
Whippoorwill  switch  for  a  timber  slide,  233. 
Wild  Ammonoosuc  River,  New  Hampshire,  log  driving  on,  379. 
Williams,  Asa  S.,  on  logging  by  steam,  221,  303,  473.  475- 

on  the  mechanical  traction  of  sleds,  176,  472. 
Willow,  resistance  of  wood  in  cross-cut  sawing,  76. 
Wind  damage  to  standing  timber,  37. 
Wisconsin,  crib  dam  in,  351. 

stumpage  values  in,  539. 
Wood,  A.  B.,  on  topographic  mapping,  256,  474- 
Wood  Craft,  478. 


590  INDEX 

Wood  Worker,  478. 

Woolsey,  Jr.,  Theodore  S.,  on  National  Forest  timber  sale  contract,  471. 

on  scaling  government  timber,  126,  475. 

on  the  western  yellow  pine  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 
26,  470. 
Workmen's  compensation  acts,  51. 
Works,  rafting,  367,  368. 
Worm  holes  in  logs,  96. 
Wyoming,  a  flume  in,  409. 

Yarding  engine,  cost  of,  214. 
crew  for,  215. 
daily  output,  217. 
duplex,  217. 

loading  log  cars  with  a,  329. 
logging  in  the  Northwest  with,  213,  432. 
method  of  operation,  214. 
size  of,  213,  217. 
Yarding  logs,  Alaska,  436,  437. 
Colorado,  423. 
Northeast,  161,  425. 
Northwest,  213,  432-434,  437. 
Yarding  sled,  157. 

capacity,  158. 
construction,  157. 
cost  of  hauling  logs  on  a,  158. 
fastening  logs  on  a,  158,  illustration,  158. 
roads  for  a,  161,  illustrations,  162,  163. 
Yellow  pine,  blasting  stumps  of,  276. 

contract  prices  for  skidding  and  hauling,  192. 
Yield,  tanbark,  chestnut  oak,  464. 
hemlock,  462. 
tanbark  oak,  465. 

Ziegler,  E.  A.,  on  standardizing  log  measures,  113,  126,  475. 
Zon,  Raphael.,  on  chestnut  in  southern  Maryland,  88. 

on  factors  influencing  the  volume  of  wood  in  a  cord,  115,  126,  475. 

on  foreign  sources  of  timber  supply,  476. 

on  management  of  second-growth  in  the  southern  Appalachians, 
471. 


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